Vietnam
Socialist Republic of Vietnam Cộng hòa Xã hội chủ nghĩa Việt Nam (Vietnamese) | |
|---|---|
| Motto: Độc lập – Tự do – Hạnh phúc "Independence – Freedom – Happiness" | |
| Anthem: Tiến Quân Ca "Army March" | |
.svg)  Location of Vietnam (green) in ASEAN (dark grey) | |
| Capital | Hanoi 21°2′N 105°51′E / 21.033°N 105.850°E |
| Largest city | Ho Chi Minh City 10°48′N 106°39′E / 10.800°N 106.650°E |
| Official language | Vietnamese[1] |
| Ethnic groups (2019) |
|
| Religion (2019) |
|
| Demonym(s) | Vietnamese Viet (colloquial) |
| Government | Unitary Marxist–Leninist one-party socialist republic[5] |
| Vacant | |
| Tô Lâm | |
| Phạm Minh Chính | |
| Trần Thanh Mẫn | |
| Legislature | National Assembly |
| Formation | |
• Văn Lang | 7th century BC |
• Âu Lạc | 3rd century BC |
| 111 BC | |
| 939 | |
| 1428 | |
• Nguyễn's unification | 1802 |
| 25 August 1883 | |
| 2 September 1945 | |
| 21 July 1954 | |
| 30 April 1975 | |
| 2 July 1976 | |
• Đổi Mới | 18 December 1986 |
| 28 November 2013[b] | |
| Area | |
• Total | 331,344.82[7][c] km2 (127,932.95 sq mi) (66th) |
• Water (%) | 6.38 |
| Population | |
• 2023 estimate | 100,300,000[10][11] (15th) |
• 2019 census | 96,208,984[2] |
• Density | 298/km2 (771.8/sq mi) (49th) |
| GDP (PPP) | 2024 estimate |
• Total |  $1.559 trillion[12] (26th) |
• Per capita | $15,470[12] (106th) |
| GDP (nominal) | 2024 estimate |
• Total | $465.814 billion[12] (35th) |
• Per capita | $4,623[12] (119th) |
| Gini (2020) |  36.8[13]medium |
| HDI (2022) | 0.726[14] high (107th) |
| Currency | Vietnamese đồng (₫) (VND) |
| Time zone | UTC+07:00 (Vietnam Standard Time) |
| Driving side | right |
| Calling code | +84 |
| ISO 3166 code | VN |
| Internet TLD | .vn |
Vietnam,[d][e] officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam (SRV),[f] is a country at the eastern edge of mainland Southeast Asia, with an area of about 331,000 square kilometres (128,000 sq mi) and a population of over 100 million, making it the world's fifteenth-most populous country. One of the two Marxist-Leninist states in Southeast Asia,[g] Vietnam shares land borders with China to the north, and Laos and Cambodia to the west. It shares maritime borders with Thailand through the Gulf of Thailand, and the Philippines, Indonesia, and Malaysia through the South China Sea. Its capital is Hanoi and its largest city is Ho Chi Minh City (commonly known as Saigon).
Vietnam was inhabited by the Paleolithic age, with states established in the first millennium BC on the Red River Delta in modern-day northern Vietnam. The Han dynasty annexed Northern and Central Vietnam under Chinese rule from 111 BC, until the first dynasty emerged in 939. Successive monarchical dynasties absorbed Chinese influences through Confucianism and Buddhism, and expanded southward to the Mekong Delta, conquering Champa. During most of the 17th and 18th centuries, Vietnam was effectively divided into two domains of Đàng Trong and Đàng Ngoài. The Nguyễn—the last imperial dynasty—surrendered to France in 1883. In 1887, its territory was integrated into French Indochina as three separate regions. In the immediate aftermath of World War II, the nationalist coalition Viet Minh, led by the communist revolutionary Ho Chi Minh, launched the August Revolution and declared Vietnam's independence in 1945.
Vietnam went through prolonged warfare in the 20th century. After World War II, France returned to reclaim colonial power in the First Indochina War, from which Vietnam emerged victorious in 1954. As a result of the treaties signed between the Viet Minh and France, Vietnam was also separated into two parts. The Vietnam War began shortly after, between the communist North Vietnam, supported by the Soviet Union and China, and the anti-communist South Vietnam, supported by the United States. Upon the North Vietnamese victory in 1975, Vietnam reunified as a unitary socialist state under the Communist Party of Vietnam (CPV) in 1976. An ineffective planned economy, a trade embargo by the West, and wars with Cambodia and China crippled the country further. In 1986, the CPV initiated economic and political reforms similar to the Chinese economic reform, transforming the country to a socialist-oriented market economy. The reforms facilitated Vietnamese reintegration into the global economy and politics.
Vietnam is a developing country with a lower-middle-income economy. It has high levels of corruption, censorship, environmental issues and a poor human rights record; the country ranks among the lowest in international measurements of civil liberties, freedom of the press, and freedom of religion and ethnic minorities. It is part of international and intergovernmental institutions including the ASEAN, the APEC, the CPTPP, the Non-Aligned Movement, the OIF, and the WTO. It has assumed a seat on the United Nations Security Council twice.
Etymology
The name Việt Nam (Vietnamese pronunciation: [viə̀t naːm], chữ Hán: 越南), literally "Viet South", means "Viet of the South" per Vietnamese word order or "South of the Viet" per Classical Chinese word order.[15] A variation of the name, Nanyue (or Nam Việt, 南越), was first documented in the 2nd century BC.[16] The term "Việt" (Yue) (Chinese: 越; pinyin: Yuè; Cantonese Yale: Yuht; Wade–Giles: Yüeh4; Vietnamese: Việt) in Early Middle Chinese was first written using the logograph "戉" for an axe (a homophone), in oracle bone and bronze inscriptions of the late Shang dynasty (c. 1200 BC), and later as "越".[17] At that time it referred to a people or chieftain to the northwest of the Shang.[18] In the early 8th century BC, a tribe on the middle Yangtze were called the Yangyue, a term later used for peoples further south.[18] Between the 7th and 4th centuries BC Yue/Việt referred to the State of Yue in the lower Yangtze basin and its people.[17][18] From the 3rd century BC the term was used for the non-Chinese populations of southern China and northern Vietnam, with particular ethnic groups called Minyue, Ouyue, Luoyue (Vietnamese: Lạc Việt), etc., collectively called the Baiyue (Bách Việt, Chinese: 百越; pinyin: Bǎiyuè; Cantonese Yale: Baak Yuet; Vietnamese: Bách Việt; "Hundred Yue/Viet").[17][18][19] The term Baiyue/Bách Việt first appeared in the book Lüshi Chunqiu compiled around 239 BC.[20] By the 17th and 18th centuries AD, educated Vietnamese apparently referred to themselves as người Việt (Viet people) or người Nam (southern people).[21]
The form Việt Nam (越南) is first recorded in the 16th-century oracular poem Sấm Trạng Trình. The name has also been found on 12 steles carved in the 16th and 17th centuries, including one at Bao Lam Pagoda in Hải Phòng that dates to 1558.[22] In 1802, Nguyễn Phúc Ánh (who later became Emperor Gia Long) established the Nguyễn dynasty. In the second year of his rule, he asked the Jiaqing Emperor of the Qing dynasty to confer on him the title 'King of Nam Việt / Nanyue' (南越 in Chinese character) after seizing power in Annam. The Emperor refused because the name was related to Zhao Tuo's Nanyue, which included the regions of Guangxi and Guangdong in southern China. The Qing Emperor, therefore, decided to call the area "Việt Nam" instead,[h][24] meaning "South of the Viet" per Classical Chinese word order but the Vietnamese understood it as "Viet of the South" per Vietnamese word order.[15] Between 1804 and 1813, the name Vietnam was used officially by Emperor Gia Long.[h] It was revived in the early 20th century in Phan Bội Châu's History of the Loss of Vietnam, and later by the Vietnamese Nationalist Party (VNQDĐ).[25] The country was usually called Annam until 1945, when the imperial government in Huế adopted Việt Nam.[26]
History
Prehistory and early history
Archaeological excavations have revealed the existence of humans in what is now Vietnam as early as the Paleolithic age. Stone artefacts excavated in Gia Lai province have been claimed to date to 780,000 years ago,[27] based on associated find of tektites, however this claim has been challenged because tektites are often found in archaeological sites of various ages in Vietnam.[28] Homo erectus fossils dating to around 500,000 BC have been found in caves in Lạng Sơn and Nghệ An provinces in northern Vietnam.[29] The oldest Homo sapiens fossils from mainland Southeast Asia are of Middle Pleistocene provenance, and include isolated tooth fragments from Tham Om and Hang Hum.[30][31][32] Teeth attributed to Homo sapiens from the Late Pleistocene have been found at Dong Can,[33] and from the Early Holocene at Mai Da Dieu,[34][35] Lang Gao[36][37] and Lang Cuom.[38] Areas comprising what is now Vietnam participated in the Maritime Jade Road, as ascertained by archeological research.[39][40][41][42]
By about 1,000 BC, the development of wet-rice cultivation in the Ma River and Red River floodplains led to the flourishing of Đông Sơn culture,[43][44] notable for its bronze casting used to make elaborate bronze Đông Sơn drums.[45][46][47] At this point, the early Vietnamese kingdoms of Văn Lang and Âu Lạc appeared, and the culture's influence spread to other parts of Southeast Asia, including Maritime Southeast Asia, throughout the first millennium BC.[46][48]
Dynastic Vietnam
.svg)
According to Vietnamese legends, Hồng Bàng dynasty of the Hùng kings first established in 2879 BC is considered the first state in the history of Vietnam (then known as Xích Quỷ and later Văn Lang).[49][50] In 257 BC, the last Hùng king was defeated by Thục Phán. He consolidated the Lạc Việt and Âu Việt tribes to form the Âu Lạc, proclaiming himself An Dương Vương.[51] In 179 BC, a Chinese general named Zhao Tuo ("Triệu Đà") defeated An Dương Vương and consolidated Âu Lạc into Nanyue.[44] However, Nanyue was itself incorporated into the empire of the Chinese Han dynasty in 111 BC after the Han–Nanyue War.[24][52] For the next thousand years, what is now northern Vietnam remained mostly under Chinese rule.[53][54] Early independence movements, such as those of the Trưng Sisters and Lady Triệu,[55] were temporarily successful,[56] though the region gained a longer period of independence as Vạn Xuân under the Anterior Lý dynasty between AD 544 and 602.[57][58][59] By the early 10th century, Northern Vietnam had gained autonomy, but not sovereignty, under the Khúc family.[60]
In AD 938, the Vietnamese lord Ngô Quyền defeated the forces of the Chinese Southern Han state at Bạch Đằng River and achieved full independence for Vietnam in 939 after a millennium of Chinese domination.[61][62][63] By the 960s, the dynastic Đại Việt (Great Viet) kingdom was established, Vietnamese society enjoyed a golden era under the Lý and Trần dynasties. During the rule of the Trần Dynasty, Đại Việt repelled three Mongol invasions.[64][65] Meanwhile, the Mahāyāna branch of Buddhism flourished and became the state religion.[63][66] Following the 1406–7 Ming–Hồ War, which overthrew the Hồ dynasty, Vietnamese independence was interrupted briefly by the Chinese Ming dynasty, but was restored by Lê Lợi, the founder of the Lê dynasty.[67] The Vietnamese polity reached their zenith in the Lê dynasty of the 15th century, especially during the reign of emperor Lê Thánh Tông (1460–1497).[68][69] Between the 11th and 18th centuries, the Vietnamese polity expanded southward in a gradual process known as Nam tiến ("Southward expansion"),[70] eventually conquering the kingdom of Champa and part of the Khmer Kingdom.[71][72][73]
From the 16th century onward, civil strife and frequent political infighting engulfed much of Dai Viet. First, the Chinese-supported Mạc dynasty challenged the Lê dynasty's power.[74] After the Mạc dynasty was defeated, the Lê dynasty was nominally reinstalled. Actual power, however, was divided between the northern Trịnh lords and the southern Nguyễn lords, who engaged in a civil war for more than four decades before a truce was called in the 1670s.[75] Vietnam was divided into North (Trịnh) and South (Nguyễn) from 1600 to 1777. During this period, the Nguyễn expanded southern Vietnam into the Mekong Delta, annexing the Central Highlands and the Khmer lands in the Mekong Delta.[71][73][76] The division of the country ended a century later when the Tây Sơn brothers helped Trịnh to end Nguyễn, they also established new dynasty and ended Trịnh. However, their rule did not last long, and they were defeated by the remnants of the Nguyễn lords, led by Nguyễn Ánh. Nguyễn Ánh unified Vietnam, and established the Nguyễn dynasty, ruling under the name Gia Long.[76]
French Indochina
In the 1500s, the Portuguese explored the Vietnamese coast and reportedly erected a stele on the Chàm Islands to mark their presence.[77] By 1533, they began landing in the Vietnamese delta but were forced to leave because of local turmoil and fighting. They also had less interest in the territory than they did in China and Japan.[77] After they had settled in Macau and Nagasaki to begin the profitable Macau–Japan trade route, the Portuguese began to involve themselves in trade with Hội An.[77] Portuguese traders and Jesuit missionaries under the Padroado system were active in both Vietnamese realms of Đàng Trong (Cochinchina or Quinan) and Đàng Ngoài (Tonkin) in the 17th century.[78] The Dutch also tried to establish contact with Quinan in 1601 but failed to sustain a presence there after several violent encounters with the locals. The Dutch East India Company (VOC) only managed to establish official relations with Tonkin in the spring of 1637 after leaving Dejima in Japan to establish trade for silk.[79] Meanwhile, in 1613, the first English attempt to establish contact with Hội An failed following a violent incident involving the East India Company. By 1672 the English did establish relations with Tonkin and were allowed to reside in Phố Hiến.[80]
Between 1615 and 1753, French traders also engaged in trade in Vietnam.[81][82] The first French missionaries arrived in 1658, under the Portuguese Padroado. From its foundation, the Paris Foreign Missions Society under Propaganda Fide actively sent missionaries to Vietnam, entering Cochinchina first in 1664 and Tonkin first in 1666.[83] Spanish Dominicans joined the Tonkin mission in 1676, and Franciscans were in Cochinchina from 1719 to 1834. The Vietnamese authorities began[when?] to feel threatened by continuous Christianisation activities.[84] After several Catholic missionaries were detained, the French Navy intervened in 1843 to free them, as the kingdom was perceived as xenophobic.[85] In a series of conquests from 1859 to 1885, France eroded Vietnam's sovereignty.[86] At the siege of Tourane in 1858, France was aided by Spain (with Filipino, Latin American, and Spanish troops from the Philippines)[87] and perhaps some Tonkinese Catholics.[88] After the 1862 Treaty, and especially after France completely conquered Lower Cochinchina in 1867, the Văn Thân movement of scholar-gentry class arose and committed violence against Catholics across central and northern Vietnam.[89]
Between 1862 and 1867, the southern third of the country became the French colony of Cochinchina.[90] By 1884, the entire country was under French rule, with the central and northern parts of Vietnam separated into the two protectorates of Annam and Tonkin. The three entities were formally integrated into the union of French Indochina in 1887.[91][92] The French administration imposed significant political and cultural changes on Vietnamese society.[93] A Western-style system of modern education introduced new humanist values.[94] Most French settlers in Indochina were concentrated in Cochinchina, particularly in Saigon, and in Hanoi, the colony's capital.[95]
During the colonial period, guerrillas of the royalist Cần Vương movement rebelled against French rule and massacred around a third of Vietnam's Christian population.[96][97] After a decade of resistance, they were defeated in the 1890s by the Catholics in reprisal for their earlier massacres.[98][99] Another large-scale rebellion, the Thái Nguyên uprising, was also suppressed heavily.[100] The French developed a plantation economy to promote export of tobacco, indigo, tea and coffee.[101] However, they largely ignored the increasing demands for civil rights and self-government. An increasing dissatisfaction, even led to half-hearted, badly co-ordinated, and still worsely executed plots to oust the French, like the infamous Hanoi Poison Plot of 1908.
A nationalist political movement soon emerged, with leaders like Phan Bội Châu, Phan Châu Trinh, Phan Đình Phùng, Emperor Hàm Nghi, and Hồ Chí Minh fighting or calling for independence.[102] This resulted in the 1930 Yên Bái mutiny by the Vietnamese Nationalist Party (VNQDĐ), which the French quashed. The mutiny split the independence movement, as many leading members converted to communism.[103][104][105]
The French maintained full control of their colonies until World War II, when the war in the Pacific led to the Japanese invasion of French Indochina in 1940. Afterwards, the Japanese Empire was allowed to station its troops in Vietnam while the pro-Vichy French colonial administration continued.[106][107] Japan exploited Vietnam's natural resources to support its military campaigns, culminating in a full-scale takeover of the country in March 1945. This led to the Vietnamese Famine of 1945 which killed up to two million people.[108][109]
First Indochina War
In 1941, the Việt Minh, a nationalist liberation movement based on a communist ideology, emerged under the Vietnamese revolutionary leader Hồ Chí Minh. The Việt Minh sought independence for Vietnam from France and the end of the Japanese occupation.[110][111] After the military defeat of Japan in World War II and the fall of its puppet government Empire of Vietnam in August 1945, Saigon's administrative services collapsed and chaos, riots, and murder were widespread.[112] The Việt Minh occupied Hanoi and proclaimed a provisional government, which asserted national independence on 2 September.[111]
In July 1945, the Allies had decided to divide Indochina at the 16th parallel to allow Chiang Kai-shek of the Republic of China to receive the Japanese surrender in the north while Britain's Lord Louis Mountbatten received their surrender in the south. The Allies agreed that Indochina still belonged to France.[113][114]
But as the French were weakened by the German occupation, British-Indian forces and the remaining Japanese Southern Expeditionary Army Group were used to maintain order and help France reestablish control through the 1945–1946 War in Vietnam.[115] Hồ initially chose to take a moderate stance to avoid military conflict with France, asking the French to withdraw their colonial administrators and for French professors and engineers to help build a modern independent Vietnam.[111] But the Provisional Government of the French Republic did not act on these requests, including the idea of independence, and dispatched the French Far East Expeditionary Corps to restore colonial rule. This resulted in the Việt Minh launching a guerrilla campaign against the French in late 1946.[110][111][116] The resulting First Indochina War lasted until July 1954. The defeat of French colonialists and Vietnamese loyalists in the 1954 battle of Điện Biên Phủ allowed Hồ to negotiate a ceasefire from a favourable position at the subsequent Geneva Conference.[111][117]
The colonial administration was thereby ended and French Indochina was dissolved under the Geneva Accords of 21 July 1954 into three countries—Vietnam, and the kingdoms of Cambodia and Laos. Vietnam was further divided into North and South administrative regions at the Demilitarised Zone, roughly along the 17th parallel north (pending elections scheduled for July 1956[i]). A 300-day period of free movement was permitted, during which almost a million northerners, mainly Catholics, moved south, fearing persecution by the communists. This migration was in large part aided by the United States military through Operation Passage to Freedom.[122][123] The partition of Vietnam by the Geneva Accords was not intended to be permanent, and stipulated that Vietnam would be reunited after the elections.[124] But in 1955, the southern State of Vietnam's prime minister, Ngô Đình Diệm, toppled Bảo Đại in a fraudulent referendum organised by his brother Ngô Đình Nhu, and proclaimed himself president of the Republic of Vietnam.[124] This effectively replaced the internationally recognised State of Vietnam by the Republic of Vietnam in the south—supported by the United States, France, Laos, Republic of China and Thailand—and Hồ's Democratic Republic of Vietnam in the north, supported by the Soviet Union, Sweden,[125] Khmer Rouge, and the People's Republic of China.[124]
Vietnam War
From 1953 to 1956, the North Vietnamese government instituted agrarian reforms including "rent reduction" and "land reform", which resulted in significant political repression.[126] This included 13,500 to as many as 100,000 executions.[127][128] In the South, Diệm countered North Vietnamese subversion (including the assassination of over 450 South Vietnamese officials in 1956) by detaining tens of thousands of suspected communists in "political reeducation centres".[129][130] This program incarcerated many non-communists, but was successful at curtailing communist activity in the country, if only for a time.[131] The North Vietnamese government claimed that 2,148 people were killed in the process by November 1957.[132] The pro-Hanoi Việt Cộng began a guerrilla campaign in South Vietnam in the late 1950s to overthrow Diệm's government.[133] From 1960, the Soviet Union and North Vietnam signed treaties providing for further Soviet military support.[134][135][136]
In 1963, Buddhist discontent with Diệm's Catholic regime erupted into mass demonstrations, leading to a violent government crackdown.[137] This led to the collapse of Diệm's relationship with the United States, and ultimately to a 1963 coup in which he and Nhu were assassinated.[138] The Diệm era was followed by more than a dozen successive military governments, before the pairing of Air Marshal Nguyễn Cao Kỳ and General Nguyễn Văn Thiệu took control in mid-1965.[139] Thiệu gradually outmaneuvered Kỳ and cemented his grip on power in fraudulent elections in 1967 and 1971.[140] During this political instability, the communists began to gain ground. To support South Vietnam's struggle against the communist insurgency, the United States used the 1964 Gulf of Tonkin incident as a pretext for increasing its contribution of military advisers.[141] US forces became involved in ground combat operations by 1965, and at their peak several years later, numbered more than 500,000.[142][143] The US also engaged in sustained aerial bombing. Meanwhile, China and the Soviet Union provided North Vietnam with significant material aid and 15,000 combat advisers.[134][135][144] Communist forces supplying the Việt Cộng carried supplies along the Hồ Chí Minh trail, which passed through Laos.[145]
The communists attacked South Vietnamese targets during the 1968 Tết Offensive. The campaign failed militarily, but shocked the American establishment and turned US public opinion against the war.[146] During the offensive, communist troops massacred over 3,000 civilians at Huế.[147][148] Facing an increasing casualty count, rising domestic opposition to the war, and growing international condemnation, the US began withdrawing from ground combat roles in the early 1970s. This also entailed an unsuccessful effort to strengthen and stabilise South Vietnam.[149] Following the Paris Peace Accords of 27 January 1973, all American combat troops were withdrawn by 29 March 1973.[150] In December 1974, North Vietnam captured the province of Phước Long and started a full-scale offensive, culminating in the fall of Saigon on 30 April 1975.[151] South Vietnam was ruled by a provisional government for almost eight years while under North Vietnamese military occupation.[152]
Reunification and reforms
On 2 July 1976, North and South Vietnam were merged to form the Socialist Republic of Vietnam.[153] The war had devastated Vietnam and killed 966,000 to 3.8 million people.[154][155][156] A 1974 US Senate subcommittee estimated nearly 1.4 million Vietnamese civilians were killed or wounded between 1965 and 1974—including 415,000 killed.[157][158] In its aftermath, under Lê Duẩn's administration, there were no mass executions of South Vietnamese who had collaborated with the US or the defunct South Vietnamese government, confounding Western fears,[159] but up to 300,000 South Vietnamese were sent to reeducation camps, where many endured torture, starvation, and disease while being forced to perform hard labour.[160] The government embarked on a mass campaign of collectivisation of farms and factories.[161] Many fled the country following the conclusion of the war.[162] In 1978, in response to the Khmer Rouge government of Cambodia ordering massacres of Vietnamese residents in the border villages in the districts of An Giang and Kiên Giang,[163] the Vietnamese military invaded Cambodia and removed them from power after occupying Phnom Penh.[164] The intervention was a success, resulting in the establishment of a new, pro-Vietnam socialist government, the People's Republic of Kampuchea, which ruled until 1989.[165] However, this worsened relations with China, which had supported the Khmer Rouge. China later launched a brief incursion into northern Vietnam in 1979, causing Vietnam to rely even more heavily on Soviet economic and military aid, while mistrust of the Chinese government escalated.[166]
At the Sixth National Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam (CPV) in December 1986, reformist politicians replaced the "old guard" government with new leadership.[167][168] The reformers were led by 71-year-old Nguyễn Văn Linh, who became the party's new general secretary.[167] He and the reformers implemented a series of free-market reforms known as Đổi Mới ("Renovation") that carefully managed the transition from a planned economy to a "socialist-oriented market economy".[169][170] Although the authority of the state remained unchallenged under Đổi Mới, the government encouraged private ownership of farms and factories, economic deregulation, and foreign investment, while maintaining control over strategic industries.[170][171] Subsequently, Vietnam's economy achieved strong growth in agricultural and industrial production, construction, exports, and foreign investment, although these reforms also resulted in a rise in income inequality and gender disparities.[172][173][174]
In 2021, General Secretary of the Communist Party, Nguyen Phu Trong, was re-elected for his third term in office, meaning he is Vietnam's most powerful leader in decades.[175]
Geography
Vietnam is located on the eastern Indochinese Peninsula between the latitudes 8° and 24°N, and the longitudes 102° and 110°E. It covers a total area of 331,210 km2 (127,881 sq mi)[176] or 331,699 km2 (128,070 sq mi).[177] The combined length of the country's land boundaries is 4,639 km (2,883 mi), and its coastline is 3,444 km (2,140 mi) long.[178] At its narrowest point in the central Quảng Bình Province, the country is as little as 50 kilometres (31 mi) across, though it widens to around 600 kilometres (370 mi) in the north.[179] Vietnam's land is mostly hilly and densely forested, with level land covering no more than 20%. Mountains account for 40% of the country's land area,[180] and tropical forests cover around 42%.[181] The Red River Delta in the north, a flat, roughly triangular region covering 15,000 km2 (5,792 sq mi),[182] is smaller but more intensely developed and more densely populated than the Mekong River Delta in the south. Once an inlet of the Gulf of Tonkin, it has been filled in over the millennia by riverine alluvial deposits.[183][184] The delta, covering about 40,000 km2 (15,444 sq mi), is a low-level plain no more than 3 metres (9.8 ft) above sea level at any point. It is criss-crossed by a maze of rivers and canals, which carry so much sediment that the delta advances 60 to 80 metres (196.9 to 262.5 ft) into the sea every year.[185][186] The exclusive economic zone of Vietnam covers 417,663 km2 (161,261 sq mi) in the South China Sea.[187]
Southern Vietnam is divided into coastal lowlands, the mountains of the Annamite Range, and extensive forests. Comprising five relatively flat plateaus of basalt soil, the highlands account for 16% of the country's arable land and 22% of its total forested land.[188] The soil in much of the southern part of Vietnam is relatively low in nutrients as a result of intense cultivation.[189] Several minor earthquakes have been recorded.[190][191] The northern part of the country consists mostly of highlands and the Red River Delta. Fansipan (also known as Phan Xi Păng), which is located in Lào Cai Province, is the highest mountain in Vietnam, standing 3,143 m (10,312 ft) high.[192] From north to south Vietnam, the country also has numerous islands; Phú Quốc is the largest.[193] The Hang Sơn Đoòng Cave is considered the largest known cave passage in the world since its discovery in 2009. The Ba Bể Lake and Mekong River are the largest lake and longest river in the country.[194][195][196]
Climate
Due to differences in latitude and the marked variety in topographical relief, Vietnam's climate tends to vary considerably for each region.[197] During the winter or dry season, extending roughly from November to April, the monsoon winds usually blow from the northeast along the Chinese coast and across the Gulf of Tonkin, picking up considerable moisture.[198] The average annual temperature is generally higher in the plains than in the mountains, especially in southern Vietnam compared to the north. Temperatures vary less in the southern plains around Ho Chi Minh City and the Mekong Delta, ranging from between 21 and 35 °C (70 and 95 °F) over the year.[199] In Hanoi and the surrounding areas of the Red River Delta, the temperatures are much lower between 15 and 33 °C (59 and 91 °F).[199] Seasonal variations in the mountains, plateaus, and the northernmost areas are much more dramatic, with temperatures varying from 3 °C (37 °F) in December and January to 37 °C (99 °F) in July and August.[200] During winter, snow occasionally falls over the highest peaks of the far northern mountains near the Chinese border.[201] Vietnam receives high rates of precipitation in the form of rainfall with an average amount from 1,500 to 2,000 mm (60 to 80 in) during the monsoon seasons; this often causes flooding, especially in the cities with poor drainage systems.[202] The country is also affected by tropical depressions, tropical storms and typhoons.[202] Vietnam is one of the most vulnerable countries to climate change, with 55% of its population living in low-elevation coastal areas.[203][204]
Biodiversity
As the country is located within the Indomalayan realm, Vietnam is one of twenty-five countries considered to possess a uniquely high level of biodiversity. This was noted in the country's National Environmental Condition Report in 2005.[205] It is ranked 16th worldwide in biological diversity, being home to approximately 16% of the world's species. 15,986 species of flora have been identified in the country, of which 10% are endemic. Vietnam's fauna includes 307 nematode species, 200 oligochaeta, 145 acarina, 113 springtails, 7,750 insects, 260 reptiles, and 120 amphibians. There are 840 birds and 310 mammals are found in Vietnam, of which 100 birds and 78 mammals are endemic.[205] Vietnam has two World Natural Heritage Sites—the Hạ Long Bay and Phong Nha-Kẻ Bàng National Park—together with nine biosphere reserves, including Cần Giờ Mangrove Forest, Cát Tiên, Cát Bà, Kiên Giang, the Red River Delta, Mekong Delta, Western Nghệ An, Cà Mau, and Cu Lao Cham Marine Park.[206][207][208]
Vietnam is also home to 1,438 species of freshwater microalgae, constituting 9.6% of all microalgae species, as well as 794 aquatic invertebrates and 2,458 species of sea fish.[205] In recent years, 13 genera, 222 species, and 30 taxa of flora have been newly described in Vietnam.[205] Six new mammal species, including the saola, giant muntjac and Tonkin snub-nosed monkey have also been discovered, along with one new bird species, the endangered Edwards's pheasant.[209] In the late 1980s, a small population of Javan rhinoceros was found in Cát Tiên National Park. However, the last individual of the species in Vietnam was reportedly shot in 2010.[210] In agricultural genetic diversity, Vietnam is one of the world's twelve original cultivar centres. The Vietnam National Cultivar Gene Bank preserves 12,300 cultivars of 115 species.[205] The Vietnamese government spent US$49.07 million on the preservation of biodiversity in 2004 alone and has established 126 conservation areas, including 30 national parks.[205]
In Vietnam, wildlife poaching has become a major concern. In 2000, a non-governmental organisation (NGO) called Education for Nature – Vietnam was founded to instill in the population the importance of wildlife conservation in the country.[211] In the years that followed, another NGO called GreenViet was formed by Vietnamese youngsters for the enforcement of wildlife protection. Through collaboration between the NGOs and local authorities, many local poaching syndicates were crippled by their leaders' arrests.[211] A study released in 2018 revealed Vietnam is a destination for the illegal export of rhinoceros horns from South Africa due to the demand for them as a medicine and a status symbol.[212][213]
The main environmental concern that persists in Vietnam today is the legacy of the use of the chemical herbicide Agent Orange, which continues to cause birth defects and many health problems in the Vietnamese population. In the southern and central areas affected most by the chemical's use during the Vietnam War, nearly 4.8 million Vietnamese people have been exposed to it and suffered from its effects.[214][215][216] In 2012, approximately 50 years after the war,[217] the US began a US$43 million joint clean-up project in the former chemical storage areas in Vietnam to take place in stages.[215][218] Following the completion of the first phase in Đà Nẵng in late 2017,[219] the US announced its commitment to clean other sites, especially in the heavily impacted site of Biên Hòa.[220]
The Vietnamese government spends over VNĐ10 trillion each year ($431.1 million) for monthly allowances and the physical rehabilitation of victims of the chemicals.[221] In 2018, the Japanese engineering group Shimizu Corporation, working with Vietnamese military, built a plant for the treatment of soil polluted by Agent Orange. Plant construction costs were funded by the company itself.[222][223] One of the long-term plans to restore southern Vietnam's damaged ecosystems is through the use of reforestation efforts. The Vietnamese government began doing this at the end of the war. It started by replanting mangrove forests in the Mekong Delta regions and in Cần Giờ outside Hồ Chí Minh City, where mangroves are important to ease (though not eliminate) flood conditions during monsoon seasons.[224] The country had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 5.35/10, ranking it 104th globally out of 172 countries.[225]
Apart from herbicide problems, arsenic in the ground water in the Mekong and Red River Deltas has also become a major concern.[226][227] And most notoriously, unexploded ordnances (UXO) pose dangers to humans and wildlife—another bitter legacy from the long wars.[228] As part of the continuous campaign to demine/remove UXOs, several international bomb removal agencies from the United Kingdom,[229] Denmark,[230] South Korea[231] and the US[232] have been providing assistance. The Vietnam government spends over VNĐ1 trillion ($44 million) annually on demining operations and additional hundreds of billions of đồng for treatment, assistance, rehabilitation, vocational training and resettlement of the victims of UXOs.[233]
Government and politics
Vietnam is a unitary Marxist-Leninist one-party socialist republic, one of the two communist states (the other being Laos) in Southeast Asia.[234] Although Vietnam remains officially committed to socialism as its defining creed, its economic policies have grown increasingly capitalist,[235][236] with The Economist characterising its leadership as "ardently capitalist communists".[237] Under the constitution, the Communist Party of Vietnam (CPV) asserts their role in all branches of the country's politics and society.[234] The president is the elected head of state and the commander-in-chief of the military, serving as the chairman of the Council of Supreme Defence and Security, and holds the second highest office in Vietnam as well as performing executive functions and state appointments and setting policy.[234]
.jpg)
The general secretary of the CPV performs numerous key administrative functions, controlling the party's national organisation.[234] The prime minister is the head of government, presiding over a council of ministers composed of five deputy prime ministers and the heads of 26 ministries and commissions. Only political organisations affiliated with or endorsed by the CPV are permitted to contest elections in Vietnam. These include the Vietnamese Fatherland Front and worker and trade unionist parties.[234]
The National Assembly of Vietnam is the unicameral state legislature composed of 500 members.[238] Headed by a chairman, it is superior to both the executive and judicial branches, with all government ministers being appointed from members of the National Assembly.[234] The Supreme People's Court of Vietnam, headed by a chief justice, is the country's highest court of appeal, though it is also answerable to the National Assembly. Beneath the Supreme People's Court stand the provincial municipal courts and many local courts. Military courts possess special jurisdiction in matters of state security. Vietnam maintains the death penalty for numerous offences.[239]
In 2023, a three-person collective leadership was responsible for governing Vietnam. President Võ Văn Thưởng,[240] Prime Minister Phạm Minh Chính (since 2021)[241] and the most powerful leader Nguyễn Phú Trọng (since 2011) as the Communist Party of Vietnam's General Secretary.[242] On 22 May 2024, Tô Lâm, who previously served as the Minister of Public Security, was voted as the president of Vietnam by the National Assembly after Võ Văn Thưởng resigned on the same year due to corruption charges against him.[243]
Administrative divisions
Vietnam is divided into 58 provinces (Vietnamese: Tỉnh, chữ Hán: 省).[244] There are also five municipalities (thành phố trực thuộc trung ương), which are administratively on the same level as provinces.
Provinces are subdivided into provincial municipalities (thành phố trực thuộc tỉnh, 'city under province'), townships (thị xã) and counties (huyện), which are in turn subdivided into towns (thị trấn) or communes (xã).
Centrally controlled municipalities are subdivided into districts (quận) and counties, which are further subdivided into wards (phường).
Foreign relations
.jpg)
Throughout its history, Vietnam's main foreign relationship has been with various Chinese dynasties.[245] Following the partition of Vietnam in 1954, North Vietnam maintained relations with the Eastern Bloc, South Vietnam maintained relations with the Western Bloc.[245] Despite these differences, Vietnam's sovereign principles and insistence on cultural independence have been laid down in numerous documents over the centuries before its independence. These include the 11th-century patriotic poem "Nam quốc sơn hà" and the 1428 proclamation of independence "Bình Ngô đại cáo". Though China and Vietnam are now formally at peace,[245] significant territorial tensions remain between the two countries over the South China Sea.[246] Vietnam holds membership in 63 international organisations, including the United Nations (UN), Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), International Organisation of the Francophonie (La Francophonie), and World Trade Organization (WTO). It also maintains relations with over 650 non-governmental organisations.[247] As of 2010 Vietnam had established diplomatic relations with 178 countries.[248]
Vietnam's current foreign policy is to consistently implement a policy of independence, self-reliance, peace, co-operation, and development, as well openness, diversification, multilateralisation with international relations.[249][250] The country declares itself a friend and partner of all countries in the international community, regardless of their political affiliation, by actively taking part in international and regional cooperative development projects.[170][249] Since the 1990s, Vietnam has taken several key steps to restore diplomatic ties with capitalist Western countries. It already had relations with communist Western countries in the decades prior.[251] Relations with the United States began improving in August 1995 with both states upgrading their liaison offices to embassy status.[252] As diplomatic ties between the two governments grew, the United States opened a consulate general in Ho Chi Minh City while Vietnam opened its consulate in San Francisco. Full diplomatic relations were also restored with New Zealand, which opened its embassy in Hanoi in 1995;[253] Vietnam established an embassy in Wellington in 2003.[254] President of the United States, Bill Clinton, made a historic visit to Vietnam in November 2000. He was the first U.S. leader ever to officially visit Hanoi and the first to visit Vietnam since U.S. troops withdrew from the country in 1975.[255] Pakistan also reopened its embassy in Hanoi in October 2000, with Vietnam reopening its embassy in Islamabad in December 2005 and trade office in Karachi in November 2005.[256][257] In May 2016, US President Barack Obama further normalised relations with Vietnam after he announced the lifting of an arms embargo on sales of lethal arms to Vietnam.[258] Despite their historical past, today Vietnam is considered to be a potential ally of the United States, especially in the geopolitical context of the territorial disputes in the South China Sea and in containment of Chinese expansionism.[259][260][261]
Military
The Vietnam People's Armed Forces consists of the Vietnam People's Army (VPA), the Vietnam People's Public Security and the Vietnam Self-Defence Militia. The VPA is the official name for the active military services of Vietnam, and is subdivided into the Vietnam People's Ground Forces, the Vietnam People's Navy, the Vietnam People's Air Force, the Vietnam Border Guard and the Vietnam Coast Guard. The VPA has an active manpower of around 450,000, but its total strength, including paramilitary forces, may be as high as 5,000,000.[262] In 2015, Vietnam's military expenditure totalled approximately US$4.4 billion, equivalent to around 8% of its total government spending.[263] Joint military exercises and war games have been held with Brunei,[264] India,[265] Japan,[266] Laos,[267] Russia,[268] Singapore[264] and the US.[269] In 2017, Vietnam signed the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.[270][271]
Human rights and sociopolitical issues
Under the current constitution, the CPV is the only party allowed to rule, the operation of all other political parties being outlawed. Other human rights issues concern freedom of association, freedom of speech, freedom of religion, and freedom of the press. In 2009, Vietnamese lawyer Lê Công Định was arrested and charged with the capital crime of subversion; several of his associates were also arrested.[272][273] Amnesty International described him and his arrested associates as prisoners of conscience.[272] Vietnam has also suffered from human trafficking and related issues.[274][275][276]
Economy
| Share of world GDP (PPP)[12] | |
|---|---|
| Year | Share |
| 1980 | 0.21% |
| 1990 | 0.28% |
| 2000 | 0.39% |
| 2010 | 0.52% |
| 2020 | 0.80% |
Throughout the history of Vietnam, its economy has been based largely on agriculture—primarily wet rice cultivation.[277] Bauxite, an important material in the production of aluminium, is mined in central Vietnam.[278] Since reunification, the country's economy is shaped primarily by the CPV through Five Year Plans decided upon at the plenary sessions of the Central Committee and national congresses.[279] The collectivisation of farms, factories, and capital goods was carried out as part of the establishment of central planning, with millions of people working for state enterprises. Under strict state control, Vietnam's economy continued to be plagued by inefficiency, corruption in state-owned enterprises, poor quality and underproduction.[280][281][282] With the decline in economic aid from its main trading partner, the Soviet Union, following the erosion of the Eastern bloc in the late 1980s, and the subsequent collapse of the Soviet Union, as well as the negative impacts of the post-war trade embargo imposed by the United States,[283][284] Vietnam began to liberalise its trade by devaluing its exchange rate to increase exports and embarked on a policy of economic development.[285]
In 1986, the Sixth National Congress of the CPV introduced socialist-oriented market economic reforms as part of the Đổi Mới reform program. Private ownership began to be encouraged in industry, commerce and agriculture and state enterprises were restructured to operate under market constraints.[286][287] This led to the five-year economic plans being replaced by the socialist-oriented market mechanism.[288] As a result of these reforms, Vietnam achieved approximately 8% annual gross domestic product (GDP) growth between 1990 and 1997.[289][290] The United States ended its economic embargo against Vietnam in early 1994.[291] Although the 1997 Asian financial crisis caused an economic slowdown to 4–5% growth per year, its economy began to recover in 1999,[286] and grew at around 7% per year from 2000 to 2005, one of the fastest in the world.[292][293] On 11 January 2007, Vietnam became the 150th member of the WTO (World Trade Organization).[294] According to the General Statistics Office of Vietnam (GSO), growth remained strong despite the late-2000s global recession, holding at 6.8% in 2010. Vietnam's year-on-year inflation rate reached 11.8% in December 2010 and the currency, the Vietnamese đồng, was devalued three times.[295][296]
Deep poverty, defined as the percentage of the population living on less than $1 per day, has declined significantly in Vietnam and the relative poverty rate is now less than that of China, India and the Philippines.[297] This decline can be attributed to equitable economic policies aimed at improving living standards and preventing the rise of inequality.[298] These policies have included egalitarian land distribution during the initial stages of the Đổi Mới program, investment in poorer remote areas, and subsidising of education and healthcare.[299][300] Since the early 2000s, Vietnam has applied sequenced trade liberalisation, a two-track approach opening some sectors of the economy to international markets.[298][301] Manufacturing, information technology and high-tech industries now form a large and fast-growing part of the national economy. Although Vietnam is a relative newcomer to the oil industry, it is the third-largest oil producer in Southeast Asia with a total 2011 output of 318,000 barrels per day (50,600 m3/d).[302] In 2010, Vietnam was ranked as the eighth-largest crude petroleum producer in the Asia and Pacific region.[303] The US bought the biggest share of Vietnam's exports,[304] while goods from China were the most popular Vietnamese import.[305]
Based on findings by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in 2022, the unemployment rate in Vietnam was 2.3%, the nominal GDP US$406.452 billion, and a nominal GDP per capita $4,086.[12][306] Besides the primary sector economy, tourism has contributed significantly to Vietnam's economic growth with 7.94 million foreign visitors recorded in 2015.[307]
Agriculture
As a result of several land reform measures, Vietnam has become a major exporter of agricultural products. It is now the world's largest producer of cashew nuts, with a one-third global share;[308] the largest producer of black pepper, accounting for one-third of the world's market;[309] and the second-largest rice exporter in the world after Thailand since the 1990s.[310] Subsequently, Vietnam is also the world's second largest exporter of coffee.[311] The country has the highest proportion of land use for permanent crops together with other states in the Greater Mekong Subregion.[312] Other primary exports include tea, rubber and fishery products. Agriculture's share of Vietnam's GDP has fallen in recent decades, declining from 42% in 1989 to 20% in 2006 as production in other sectors of the economy has risen.
Seafood
The overall fisheries production of Vietnam from capture fisheries and aquaculture was 5.6 million MT in 2011 and 6.7 million MT in 2016. The output of Vietnam's fisheries sector has seen strong growth, which could be attributed to the continued expansion of the aquaculture sub-sector.[313]
Science and technology
In 2010, Vietnam's total state spending on science and technology amounted to roughly 0.45% of its GDP.[316] Vietnamese scientists have made many significant contributions in various fields of study, most notably in mathematics. Hoàng Tụy pioneered the applied mathematics field of global optimisation in the 20th century,[317] while Ngô Bảo Châu won the 2010 Fields Medal for his proof of fundamental lemma in the theory of automorphic forms.[318][319] Since the establishment of the Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology (VAST) by the government in 1975, the country is working to develop its first national space flight program especially after the completion of the infrastructure at the Vietnam Space Centre (VSC) in 2018.[320][321] Vietnam has also made significant advances in the development of robots, such as the TOPIO humanoid model.[314][315] One of Vietnam's main messaging apps, Zalo, was developed by Vương Quang Khải, a Vietnamese hacker who later worked with the country's largest information technology service company, the FPT Group.[322]
According to the UNESCO Institute for Statistics, Vietnam devoted 0.19% of its GDP to science research and development in 2011.[323] Vietnam was ranked 46th in the Global Innovation Index in 2023, it has increased its ranking considerably since 2012, where it was ranked 76th.[324][325] Between 2005 and 2014, the number of Vietnamese scientific publications recorded in Thomson Reuters' Web of Science increased at a rate well above the average for Southeast Asia, albeit from a modest starting point.[326] Publications focus mainly on life sciences (22%), physics (13%) and engineering (13%), which is consistent with recent advances in the production of diagnostic equipment and shipbuilding.[326]
Tourism
Tourism is an important element of economic activity in the nation, contributing 7.5% of the total GDP. Vietnam hosted roughly 13 million tourists in 2017, an increase of 29.1% over the previous year, making it one of the fastest growing tourist destinations in the world. The vast majority of the tourists in the country, some 9.7 million, came from Asia; namely China (4 million), South Korea (2.6 million), and Japan (798,119).[327] Vietnam also attracts large numbers of visitors from Europe, with almost 1.9 million visitors in 2017; most European visitors came from Russia (574,164), followed by the United Kingdom (283,537), France (255,396), and Germany (199,872). Other significant international arrivals by nationality include the United States (614,117) and Australia (370,438).[327]
The most visited destinations in Vietnam are the largest city, Ho Chi Minh City, with over 5.8 million international arrivals, followed by Hanoi with 4.6 million and Hạ Long, including Hạ Long Bay with 4.4 million arrivals. All three are ranked in the top 100 most visited cities in the world.[328] Vietnam is home to eight UNESCO World Heritage Sites. In 2018, Travel + Leisure ranked Hội An as one of the world's top 15 best destinations to visit.[329]
Transport
Much of Vietnam's modern transportation network can trace its roots to the French colonial era when it was used to facilitate the transportation of raw materials to its main ports. It was extensively expanded and modernised following the partition of Vietnam.[330] Vietnam's road system includes national roads administered at the central level, provincial roads managed at the provincial level, district roads managed at the district level, urban roads managed by cities and towns and commune roads managed at the commune level.[331] In 2010, Vietnam's road system had a total length of about 188,744 kilometres (117,280 mi) of which 93,535 kilometres (58,120 mi) are asphalt roads comprising national, provincial and district roads.[331] The length of the national road system is about 15,370 kilometres (9,550 mi) with 15,085 kilometres (9,373 mi) of its length paved. The provincial road system has around 27,976 kilometres (17,383 mi) of paved roads while 50,474 kilometres (31,363 mi) district roads are paved.[331]
Bicycles, motorcycles and motor scooters remain the most popular forms of road transport in the country, a legacy of the French, though the number of privately owned cars has been increasing in recent years.[332] Public buses operated by private companies are the main mode of long-distance travel for much of the population. Road accidents remain the major safety issue of Vietnamese transportation with an average of 30 people losing their lives daily.[333] Traffic congestion is a growing problem in both Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City especially with the growth of individual car ownership.[334][335] Vietnam's primary cross-country rail service is the Reunification Express from Ho Chi Minh City to Hanoi, a distance of nearly 1,726 kilometres (1,072 mi).[336] From Hanoi, railway lines branch out to the northeast, north, and west; the eastbound line runs from Hanoi to Hạ Long Bay, the northbound line from Hanoi to Thái Nguyên, and the northeast line from Hanoi to Lào Cai. In 2009, Vietnam and Japan signed a deal to build a high-speed railway—shinkansen (bullet train)—using Japanese technology.[337] Vietnamese engineers were sent to Japan to receive training in the operation and maintenance of high-speed trains.[338] The planned railway will be a 1,545 kilometres (960 mi)-long express route serving a total of 23 stations, including Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City, with 70% of its route running on bridges and through tunnels.[339][340] The trains will travel at a maximum speed of 350 kilometres (220 mi) per hour.[340][341] Plans for the high-speed rail line, however, have been postponed after the Vietnamese government decided to prioritise the development of both the Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City metros and expand road networks instead.[336][342][343]
Vietnam operates 20 major civil airports, including three international gateways: Noi Bai in Hanoi, Da Nang International Airport in Đà Nẵng and Tan Son Nhat in Ho Chi Minh City. Tan Son Nhat is the country's largest airport handling the majority of international passenger traffic.[344] According to a government-approved plan, Vietnam will have another seven international airports by 2025, including Vinh International Airport, Phu Bai International Airport, Cam Ranh International Airport, Phu Quoc International Airport, Cat Bi International Airport, Can Tho International Airport, and Long Thanh International Airport. The planned Long Thanh International Airport will have an annual service capacity of 100 million passengers once it becomes fully operational in 2025.[345] Vietnam Airlines, the state-owned national airline, maintains a fleet of 86 passenger aircraft and aims to operate 170 by 2020.[346] Several private airlines also operate in Vietnam, including Air Mekong, Bamboo Airways, Jetstar Pacific Airlines, VASCO and VietJet Air. As a coastal country, Vietnam has many major sea ports, including Cam Ranh, Đà Nẵng, Hải Phòng, Ho Chi Minh City, Hạ Long, Qui Nhơn, Vũng Tàu, Cửa Lò and Nha Trang. Further inland, the country's extensive network of rivers plays a key role in rural transportation with over 47,130 kilometres (29,290 mi) of navigable waterways carrying ferries, barges and water taxis.[347]
Energy
Vietnam's energy sector is dominated largely by the state-controlled Vietnam Electricity Group (EVN). As of 2017, EVN made up about 61.4% of the country's power generation system with a total power capacity of 25,884 MW.[349] Other energy sources are PetroVietnam (4,435 MW), Vinacomin (1,785 MW) and 10,031 MW from build–operate–transfer (BOT) investors.[350]
Most of Vietnam's power is generated by either hydropower or fossil fuel power such as coal, oil and gas, while diesel, small hydropower and renewable energy supplies the remainder.[350] The Vietnamese government had planned to develop a nuclear reactor as the path to establish another source for electricity from nuclear power. The plan was abandoned in late 2016 when a majority of the National Assembly voted to oppose the project due to widespread public concern over radioactive contamination.[351]
The household gas sector in Vietnam is dominated by PetroVietnam, which controls nearly 70% of the country's domestic market for liquefied petroleum gas (LPG).[352] Since 2011, the company also operates five renewable energy power plants including the Nhơn Trạch 2 Thermal Power Plant (750 MW), Phú Quý Wind Power Plant (6 MW), Hủa Na Hydro-power Plant (180 MW), Dakdrinh Hydro-power Plant (125 MW) and Vũng Áng 1 Thermal Power Plant (1,200 MW).[353]
According to statistics from British Petroleum (BP), Vietnam is listed among the 52 countries that have proven crude oil reserves. In 2015 the reserve was approximately 4.4 billion barrels ranking Vietnam first place in Southeast Asia, while the proven gas reserves were about 0.6 trillion cubic metres (tcm) and ranking it third in Southeast Asia after Indonesia and Malaysia.[354]
Telecommunication
Telecommunications services in Vietnam are wholly provided by the Vietnam Post and Telecommunications General Corporation (now the VNPT Group) which is a state-owned company.[355] The VNPT retained its monopoly until 1986. The telecom sector was reformed in 1995 when the Vietnamese government began to implement a competitive policy with the creation of two domestic telecommunication companies, the Military Electronic and Telecommunication Company (Viettel, which is wholly owned by the Vietnamese Ministry of Defence) and the Saigon Post and Telecommunication Company (SPT or SaigonPostel), with 18% of it owned by VNPT.[355] VNPT's monopoly was finally ended by the government in 2003 with the issuance of a decree.[356] By 2012, the top three telecom operators in Vietnam were Viettel, Vinaphone and MobiFone. The remaining companies included: EVNTelecom, Vietnammobile and S-Fone.[357] With the shift towards a more market-orientated economy, Vietnam's telecommunications market is continuously being reformed to attract foreign investment, which includes the supply of services and the establishment of nationwide telecom infrastructure.[358]
Water supply and sanitation
Vietnam has 2,360 rivers with an average annual discharge of 310 billion m³. The rainy season accounts for 70% of the year's discharge.[359] Most of the country's urban water supply systems have been developed without proper management within the last 10 years. Based on a 2008 survey by the Vietnam Water Supply and Sewerage Association (VWSA), existing water production capacity exceeded demand, but service coverage is still sparse. Most of the clean water supply infrastructure is not widely developed. It is only available to a small proportion of the population with about one third of 727 district towns having some form of piped water supply.[360] There is also concern over the safety of existing water resources for urban and rural water supply systems. Most industrial factories release their untreated wastewater directly into the water sources. Where the government does not take measures to address the issue, most domestic wastewater is discharged, untreated, back into the environment and pollutes the surface water.[360]
In recent years, there have been some efforts and collaboration between local and foreign universities to develop access to safe water in the country by introducing water filtration systems. There is a growing concern among local populations over the serious public health issues associated with water contamination caused by pollution as well as the high levels of arsenic in groundwater sources.[361] The government of Netherlands has been providing aid focusing its investments mainly on water-related sectors including water treatment projects.[362][363][364] Regarding sanitation, 78% of Vietnam's population has access to "improved" sanitation—94% of the urban population and 70% of the rural population. However, there are still about 21 million people in the country lacking access to "improved" sanitation according to a survey conducted in 2015.[365] In 2018, the construction ministry said the country's water supply, and drainage industry had been applying hi-tech methods and information technology (IT) to sanitation issues but faced problems like limited funding, climate change, and pollution.[366] The health ministry has also announced that water inspection units will be established nationwide beginning in June 2019. Inspections are to be conducted without notice, since there have been many cases involving health issues caused by poor or polluted water supplies as well unhygienic conditions reported every year.[367]
Demographics
As of 2021[update], the population of Vietnam stands at approximately 97.5 million people.[369] The population had grown significantly from the 1979 census, which showed the total population of reunified Vietnam to be 52.7 million.[370] According to the 2019 census, the country's population was 96,208,984.[2] Based on the 2019 census, 65.6% of the Vietnamese population live in rural areas while only 34.4% live in urban areas. The average growth rate of the urban population has recently increased which is attributed mainly to migration and rapid urbanisation.[2] The dominant Viet or Kinh ethnic group constitute 82,085,826 people or 85.32% of the population.[2] Most of their population is concentrated in the country's alluvial deltas and coastal plains. As a majority ethnic group, the Kinh possess significant political and economic influence over the country.[368] Despite this, Vietnam is also home to various ethnic groups, of which 54 are officially recognised, including the Hmong, Dao, Tày, Thái and Nùng.[371] Many ethnic minorities such as the Muong, who are closely related to the Kinh, dwell in the highlands which cover two-thirds of Vietnam's territory.[372]
Since the partition of Vietnam, the population of the Central Highlands was almost exclusively Degar (including more than 40 tribal groups); however, the South Vietnamese government at the time enacted a program of resettling Kinh in indigenous areas.[373][374] The Hoa (ethnic Chinese) and Khmer Krom people are mainly lowlanders.[368][375] Throughout Vietnam's history, many Chinese people, largely from South China, migrated to the country as administrators, merchants and even refugees.[376] Since the reunification in 1976, an increase of communist policies nationwide resulted in the nationalisation and confiscation of property especially from the Hoa in the south and the wealthy in cities. This led many of them to leave Vietnam.[377][378]
Urbanisation
.jpg)
The number of people who live in urbanised areas in 2019 is 33,122,548 people (with the urbanisation rate at 34.4%).[2] Since 1986, Vietnam's urbanisation rates have surged rapidly after the Vietnamese government implemented the Đổi Mới economic program, changing the system into a socialist one and liberalising property rights. As a result, Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City (the two major cities in the Red River Delta and Southeast regions respectively) increased their share of the total urban population from 8.5% and 24.9% to 15.9% and 31% respectively.[379] The Vietnamese government, through its construction ministry, forecasts the country will have a 45% urbanisation rate by 2020 although it was confirmed to only be 34.4% according to the 2019 census.[2] Urbanisation is said to have a positive correlation with economic growth. Any country with higher urbanisation rates has a higher GDP growth rate.[380] Furthermore, the urbanisation movement in Vietnam is mainly between the rural areas and the country's Southeast region. Ho Chi Minh City has received a large number of migrants due mainly to better weather and economic opportunities.[381]
A study also shows that rural-to-urban area migrants have a higher standard of living than both non-migrants in rural areas and non-migrants in urban areas. This results in changes to economic structures. In 1985, agriculture made up 37.2% of Vietnam's GDP; in 2008, that number had declined to 18.5%.[382] In 1985, industry made up only 26.2% of Vietnam's GDP; by 2008, that number had increased to 43.2%. Urbanisation also helps to improve basic services which increase people's standards of living. Access to electricity grew from 14% of total households with electricity in 1993 to above 96% in 2009.[382] In terms of access to fresh water, data from 65 utility companies shows that only 12% of households in the area covered by them had access to the water network in 2002; by 2007, more than 70% of the population was connected. Though urbanisation has many benefits, it has some drawbacks since it creates more traffic, and air and water pollution.[382]
Many Vietnamese use mopeds for transportation, since they are relatively cheap and easy to operate. Their large numbers have been known to cause traffic congestion and air pollution in Vietnam. In the capital city alone, the number of mopeds increased from 0.5 million in 2001 to 4.7 million in 2013.[382] With rapid development, factories have sprung up which indirectly pollute the air and water, for example in the 2016 Vietnam marine life disaster.[383] The government is intervening and attempting solutions to decrease air pollution by decreasing the number of motorcycles while increasing public transportation. It has introduced more regulations for waste handling. The amount of solid waste generated in urban areas of Vietnam has increased by more than 200% from 2003 to 2008. Industrial solid waste accounted for 181% of that increase. One of the government's efforts includes attempting to promote campaigns that encourage locals to sort household waste, since waste sorting is still not practised by most of Vietnamese society.[384]
Largest cities and municipalities in Vietnam
| |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rank | Name | Province | Pop. | Rank | Name | Province | Pop. | ||
 Hanoi |
1 | Ho Chi Minh City | Municipality | 8,993,082 | 11 | Tân Uyên | Bình Dương | 466,053 |  Haiphong  Cần Thơ |
| 2 | Hanoi | Municipality | 8,053,663 | 12 | Nha Trang | Khánh Hòa | 422,601 | ||
| 3 | Haiphong | Municipality | 2,028,514 | 13 | Dĩ An | Bình Dương | 403,760 | ||
| 4 | Cần Thơ | Municipality | 1,235,171 | 14 | Buôn Ma Thuột | Đắk Lắk | 375,590 | ||
| 5 | Da Nang | Municipality | 1,134,310 | 15 | Thanh Hóa | Thanh Hóa | 359,910 | ||
| 6 | Biên Hòa | Đồng Nai | 1,055,414 | 16 | Vũng Tàu | Bà Rịa-Vũng Tàu | 357,124 | ||
| 7 | Thủ Đức | Ho Chi Minh City | 1,013,795 | 17 | Bến Cát | Bình Dương | 355,663 | ||
| 8 | Huế | Thừa Thiên Huế | 652,572 | 18 | Thái Nguyên | Thái Nguyên | 340,403 | ||
| 9 | Thuận An | Bình Dương | 508,433 | 19 | Vinh | Nghệ An | 339,114 | ||
| 10 | Hải Dương | Hải Dương | 508,190 | 20 | Thủ Dầu Một | Bình Dương | 321,607 | ||
Languages
The national language of the country is Vietnamese, a tonal Austroasiatic language (Mon–Khmer), which is spoken by the majority of the population. Vietnam's minority groups speak a variety of languages, including: Tày, Mường, Cham, Khmer, Chinese, Nùng and Hmong. The Montagnard peoples of the Central Highlands also speak a number of distinct languages, some belonging to the Austroasiatic and others to the Malayo-Polynesian language families.[391] In recent years, a number of sign languages have developed in the major cities.
The French language, a legacy of colonial rule, is spoken by many educated Vietnamese as a second language, especially among those educated in the former South Vietnam, where it was a principal language in administration, education and commerce.[392] Vietnam remains a full member of the International Organisation of the Francophonie (La Francophonie) and education has revived some interest in the language.[393] Russian, and to a lesser extent German, Czech and Polish are known among some northern Vietnamese whose families had ties with the Eastern Bloc during the Cold War.[394] With improved relations with Western countries and recent reforms in Vietnamese administration, English has been increasingly used as a second language and the study of English is now obligatory in most schools either alongside or in place of French.[395][396] The popularity of Japanese, Korean, and Mandarin Chinese have also grown as the country's ties with other East Asian nations have strengthened.[397][398][399] Third-graders can choose one of seven languages (English, Russian, French, Chinese, Japanese, Korean, German) as their first foreign language.[400][401][402] In Vietnam's high school graduation examinations, students can take their foreign language exam in one of the above-mentioned languages.[403]
Religion
Religion in Vietnam (2019)[2]
Under Article 70 of the 1992 Constitution of Vietnam, all citizens enjoy freedom of belief and religion.[404] All religions are equal before the law and each place of worship is protected under Vietnamese state law. Religious beliefs cannot be misused to undermine state law and policies.[404][405] According to a 2007 survey 81% of Vietnamese people did not believe in a god.[406] Based on government findings in 2009, the number of religious people increased by 932,000.[407] The official statistics, presented by the Vietnamese government to the United Nations special rapporteur in 2014, indicate the overall number of followers of recognised religions is about 24 million of a total population of almost 90 million.[408] According to the General Statistics Office of Vietnam in 2019, Buddhists account for 4.79% of the total population, Catholics 6.1%, Protestants 1.0%, Hoahao Buddhists 1.02%, and Caodaism followers 0.58%.[2] Other religions includes Islam, Bahaʼís and Hinduism, representing less than 0.2% of the population.
The majority of Vietnamese do not follow any organised religion, though many of them observe some form of Vietnamese folk religion. Confucianism as a system of social and ethical philosophy still has certain influences in modern Vietnam. Mahāyāna is the dominant branch of Buddhism, while Theravāda is practised mostly by the Khmer minority. About 8 to 9% of the population is Christian—made up of Roman Catholics and Protestants. Catholicism was introduced to Vietnam in the 16th century and was firmly established by Jesuits missionaries (mainly Portuguese and Italian) in the 17th centuries from nearby Portuguese Macau.[78] French missionaries (from the Paris Foreign Missions Society) together with Spanish missionaries (from the Dominican Order of the neighbouring Spanish East Indies) actively sought converts in the 18th, 19th, and first half of the 20th century.[409][410][411] A significant number of Vietnamese people, especially in the South, are also adherents of two indigenous religions of syncretic Caodaism and quasi-Buddhist Hoahaoism.[412] Protestantism was only recently spread by American and Canadian missionaries in the 20th century;[413] the largest Protestant denomination is the Evangelical Church of Vietnam. Around 770,000 of the country's Protestants are members of ethnic minorities,[413] particularly the highland Montagnards[414] and Hmong people. Although it is one of the country's minority religions, Protestantism is the fastest-growing religion in Vietnam, expanding at a rate of 600% in recent decades.[413][415] Several other minority faiths exist in Vietnam, these include: Bani, Sunni and non-denominational sections of Islam which is practised primarily among the ethnic Cham minority.[416] There are also a few Kinh adherents of Islam, other minority adherents of Baha'i, as well as Hindus among the Cham's.[417][418]
Education
Vietnam has an extensive state-controlled network of schools, colleges, and universities and a growing number of privately run and partially privatised institutions. General education in Vietnam is divided into five categories: kindergarten, elementary schools, middle schools, high schools, and universities. A large number of public schools have been constructed across the country to raise the national literacy rate, which stood at 90% in 2008.[419] Most universities are located in major cities of Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City with the country's education system continuously undergoing a series of reforms by the government. Basic education in the country is relatively free for the poor although some families may still have trouble paying tuition fees for their children without some form of public or private assistance.[420] Regardless, Vietnam's school enrolment is among the highest in the world.[421][422] The number of colleges and universities increased dramatically in the 2000s from 178 in 2000 to 299 in 2005. In higher education, the government provides subsidised loans for students through the national bank, although there are deep concerns about access to the loans as well the burden on students to repay them.[423][424]Since 1995, enrolment in higher education has grown tenfold to over 2.2 million with 84,000 lecturers and 419 institutions of higher education.[425] A number of foreign universities operate private campuses in Vietnam, including Harvard University (United States) and the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology (Australia). The government's strong commitment to education has fostered significant growth but still need to be sustained to retain academics. In 2018, a decree on university autonomy allowing them to operate independently without ministerial control is in its final stages of approval. The government will continue investing in education especially for the poor to have access to basic education.[426]
Health
By 2015, 97% of the population had access to improved water sources.[427] In 2016, Vietnam's national life expectancy stood at 80.9 years for women and 71.5 for men, and the infant mortality rate was 17 per 1,000 live births.[428][429][430] Since the partition, North Vietnam has established a public health system that has reached down to the hamlet level.[431] After the national reunification in 1975, a nationwide health service was established.[174] In the late 1980s, the quality of healthcare declined to some degree as a result of budgetary constraints, a shift of responsibility to the provinces and the introduction of charges.[299] Inadequate funding has also contributed to a shortage of nurses, midwives and hospital beds; in 2000, Vietnam had only 24.7 hospital beds per 10,000 people before declining to 23.7 in 2005 as stated in the annual report of Vietnamese Health Ministry.[432] The controversial use of herbicides as a chemical weapon by the US military during the war left tangible, long-term impacts upon the Vietnamese people that persist in the country today.[433][434] For instance, it led to three million Vietnamese people suffering health problems, one million birth defects caused directly by exposure to the chemical and 24% of Vietnam's land being defoliated.[435]
Since the early 2000s, Vietnam has made significant progress in combating malaria. The malaria mortality rate fell to about five per cent of its 1990s equivalent by 2005 after the country introduced improved antimalarial drugs and treatment.[436] Tuberculosis (TB) cases, however, are on the rise. TB has become the second most infectious disease in the country after respiratory-related illness.[437] With an intensified vaccination program, better hygiene and foreign assistance, Vietnam hopes to reduce sharply the number of TB cases and new TB infections.[438] In 2004, government subsidies covering about 15% of health care expenses.[439] That year, the United States announced Vietnam would be one of 15 states to receive funding as part of its global AIDS relief plan.[440] By the following year, Vietnam had diagnosed 101,291 human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) cases, of which 16,528 progressed to acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS); 9,554 have died.[441] The actual number of HIV-positive individuals is estimated to be much higher. On average between 40 and 50 new infections are reported daily in the country. In 2007, 0.4% of the population was estimated to be infected with HIV and the figure has remained stable since 2005.[442] More global aid is being delivered through The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria to fight the spread of the disease in the country.[438] In September 2018, the Hanoi People's Committee urged the citizens of the country to stop eating dog and cat meat as it can cause diseases like rabies and leptospirosis. More than 1,000 stores in the capital city of Hanoi were found to be selling both meats. The decision prompted positive comments among Vietnamese on social media, though some noted that the consumption of dog meat will remain an ingrained habit among many people.[443]
Culture
Vietnamese culture is considered part of Sinosphere. Vietnam's culture has developed over the centuries from indigenous ancient Đông Sơn culture with wet rice cultivation as its economic base.[43][46] Some elements of the nation's culture have Chinese origins, drawing on elements of Confucianism, Mahāyāna Buddhism, and Taoism in its traditional political system and philosophy.[444][445] Vietnamese society is structured around làng (ancestral villages);[446] all Vietnamese mark a common ancestral anniversary on the tenth day of the third lunar month.[447][448] The influence of Chinese culture such as the Cantonese, Hakka, Hokkien, and Hainanese cultures is more evident in the north where Buddhism is strongly entwined with popular culture.[449] Despite this, there are Chinatowns in the south, such as in Chợ Lớn, where many Chinese have intermarried with Kinh and are indistinguishable among them.[450] In the central and southern parts of Vietnam, traces of Champa and Khmer culture are evidenced through the remains of ruins, artefacts as well within their population as the successor of the ancient Sa Huỳnh culture.[451][452] In recent centuries, Western cultures have become popular among recent generations of Vietnamese.[445]
The traditional focuses of Vietnamese culture are based on humanity (nhân nghĩa) and harmony (hòa) in which family and community values are highly regarded.[449] Vietnam reveres a number of key cultural symbols,[453] such as the Vietnamese dragon which is derived from crocodile and snake imagery; Vietnam's national father, Lạc Long Quân is depicted as a holy dragon.[447][454][455] The lạc is a holy bird representing Vietnam's national mother Âu Cơ. Other prominent images that are also revered are the turtle, buffalo and horse.[456] Many Vietnamese also believe in the supernatural and spiritualism where illness can be brought on by a curse or sorcery or caused by non-observance of a religious ethic. Traditional medical practitioners, amulets and other forms of spiritual protection and religious practices may be employed to treat the ill person.[457] In the modern era, the cultural life of Vietnam has been deeply influenced by government-controlled media and cultural programs.[445] For many decades, foreign cultural influences, especially those of Western origin, were shunned. But since the recent reformation, Vietnam has seen a greater exposure to neighbouring Southeast Asian, East Asian as well to Western culture and media.[458]
The main Vietnamese formal dress, the áo dài is worn for special occasions such as weddings and religious festivals. White áo dài is the required uniform for girls in many high schools across the country. Other examples of traditional Vietnamese clothing include: the áo tứ thân, a four-piece woman's dress; the áo ngũ, a form of the thân in five-piece form, mostly worn in the north of the country; the yếm, a woman's undergarment; the áo bà ba, rural working "pyjamas" for men and women; the áo gấm, a formal brocade tunic for government receptions; and the áo the, a variant of the áo gấm worn by grooms at weddings.[459][460] Traditional headwear includes the standard conical nón lá, the "lampshade-like" nón quai thao, and the traditional turban, khăn vấn.[460][461] In tourism, a number of popular cultural tourist destinations include the former Imperial City of Huế, the World Heritage Sites of Phong Nha-Kẻ Bàng National Park, Hội An and Mỹ Sơn, coastal regions such as Nha Trang, the caves of Hạ Long Bay and the Marble Mountains.[462][463]
Literature
Vietnamese literature has centuries-deep history and the country has a rich tradition of folk literature based on the typical six–to-eight-verse poetic form (lục bát) called ca dao which usually focuses on village ancestors and heroes.[464] Written literature has been found dating back to the 10th century Ngô dynasty, with notable ancient authors including: Nguyễn Trãi, Hồ Xuân Hương, Nguyễn Du and Nguyễn Đình Chiểu. Some literary genres play an important role in theatrical performance, such as hát nói in ca trù.[465] Some poetic unions have also been formed in Vietnam, such as the tao đàn. Vietnamese literature has been influenced by Western styles in recent times, with the first literary transformation movement of thơ mới emerging in 1932.[466] Vietnamese folk literature is an intermingling of many forms. It is not only an oral tradition, but a mixing of three media: hidden (only retained in the memory of folk authors), fixed (written), and shown (performed). Folk literature usually exists in many versions, passed down orally, and has unknown authors. Myths consist of stories about supernatural beings, heroes, creator gods and reflect the viewpoint of ancient people about human life.[467] They consist of creation stories, stories about their origins (Lạc Long Quân and Âu Cơ), culture heroes (Sơn Tinh and Thủy Tinh) which are referred to as a mountain and water spirit respectively and many other folklore tales.[450][468]
Music
Traditional Vietnamese music varies between the country's northern and southern regions.[469] Northern classical music is Vietnam's oldest musical form and is traditionally more formal. The origins of Vietnamese classical opera (tuồng) can be traced to the Mongol invasions in the 13th century when the Vietnamese captured a Chinese opera troupe.[470] Throughout its history, Vietnam has been the most heavily impacted by the Chinese musical tradition along with those of Japan, Korea and Mongolia.[471] Nhã nhạc is the most popular form of imperial court music, Chèo is a form of generally satirical musical theatre, while Xẩm or hát xẩm (xẩm singing) is a type of Vietnamese folk music. Quan họ (alternate singing) is popular in the former Hà Bắc Province (which is now divided into Bắc Ninh and Bắc Giang Provinces) and across Vietnam. Another form of music called Hát chầu văn or hát văn is used to invoke spirits during ceremonies. Nhạc dân tộc cải biên is a modern form of Vietnamese folk music which arose in the 1950s, while ca trù (also known as hát ả đào) is a popular folk music. Hò can be thought of as the southern style of Quan họ. There is a range of traditional instruments, including the đàn bầu (a monochord zither), the đàn gáo (a two-stringed fiddle with coconut body), and the đàn nguyệt (a two-stringed fretted moon lute). In recent times, there have been some efforts at mixing Vietnamese traditional music—especially folk music—with modern music to revive and promote national music in the modern context and educate the younger generations about Vietnam's traditional musical instruments and singing styles.[472] Bolero music has gained popularity in the country since the 1930s, albeit with a different style—a combination of traditional Vietnamese music with Western elements.[473] In the 21st century, the modern Vietnamese pop music industry known as V-pop incorporates elements of many popular genres worldwide, such as electronic, dance and R&B.[474][475]
Media
Vietnam's media sector is regulated by the government under the 2004 Law on Publication.[476] It is generally perceived that the country's media sector is controlled by the government and follows the official communist party line, though some newspapers are relatively outspoken.[477][478] The Voice of Vietnam (VOV) is the official state-run national radio broadcasting service, broadcasting internationally via shortwave using rented transmitters in other countries and providing broadcasts from its website, while Vietnam Television (VTV) is the national television broadcasting company. Since 1997, Vietnam has regulated public internet access extensively using both legal and technical means. The resulting lockdown is widely referred to as the "Bamboo Firewall".[479] The collaborative project OpenNet Initiative classifies Vietnam's level of online political censorship to be "pervasive",[480] while Reporters Without Borders (RWB) considers Vietnam to be one of 15 global "internet enemies".[481] Though the government of Vietnam maintains that such censorship is necessary to safeguard the country against obscene or sexually explicit content, many political and religious websites that are deemed to be undermining state authority are also blocked.[482]
Cuisine
Traditionally, Vietnamese cuisine is based around five fundamental taste "elements" (Vietnamese: ngũ vị): spicy (metal), sour (wood), bitter (fire), salty (water) and sweet (earth).[483] Common ingredients include fish sauce, shrimp paste, soy sauce, rice, fresh herbs, fruits and vegetables. Vietnamese recipes use: lemongrass, ginger, mint, Vietnamese mint, long coriander, Saigon cinnamon, bird's eye chilli, lime and basil leaves.[484] Traditional Vietnamese cooking is known for its fresh ingredients, minimal use of oil and reliance on herbs and vegetables; it is considered one of the healthiest cuisines worldwide.[485] The use of meats such as pork, beef and chicken was relatively limited in the past. Instead freshwater fish, crustaceans (particularly crabs), and molluscs became widely used. Fish sauce, soy sauce, prawn sauce and limes are among the main flavouring ingredients. Vietnam has a strong street food culture, with 40 popular dishes commonly found throughout the country.[486] Many notable Vietnamese dishes such as gỏi cuốn (salad roll), bánh cuốn (rice noodle roll), bún riêu (rice vermicelli soup) and phở noodles originated in the north and were introduced to central and southern Vietnam by northern migrants.[487][488] Local foods in the north are often less spicy than southern dishes, as the colder northern climate limits the production and availability of spices.[489] Black pepper is frequently used in place of chillis to produce spicy flavours. Vietnamese drinks in the south also are usually served cold with ice cubes, especially during the annual hot seasons; in contrast, in the north hot drinks are more preferable in a colder climate. Some examples of basic Vietnamese drinks include cà phê đá (Vietnamese iced coffee), cà phê trứng (egg coffee), chanh muối (salted pickled lime juice), cơm rượu (glutinous rice wine), nước mía (sugarcane juice) and trà sen (Vietnamese lotus tea).[490]
Holidays and festivals
The country has eleven national recognised holidays. These include: New Year's Day on 1 January; Vietnamese New Year (Tết Nguyên Đán) from the last day of the last lunar month to fifth day of the first lunar month; Hùng Kings' Festival on the 10th day of the third lunar month; Reunification Day on 30 April; International Workers' Day on 1 May; and National Day on 2 September.[491][492][493] During Tết, many Vietnamese from the major cities will return to their villages for family reunions and to pray for dead ancestors.[494][495] Older people will usually give the young a lì xì (red envelope) while special holiday food, such as bánh chưng (rice cake) in a square shape together with variety of dried fruits, are presented in the house for visitors.[496] Many other festivals are celebrated throughout the seasons, including the Tết Nguyên Tiêu, Tết Trung Thu and various temple and nature festivals.[497] In the highlands, Elephant Race Festivals are held annually during the spring; riders will ride their elephants for about 1.6 km (0.99 mi) and the winning elephant will be given sugarcane.[498] Traditional Vietnamese weddings remain widely popular.[499]
Sports
The Vovinam, Kim Kê and Võ Bình Định are widespread in Vietnam,[500][501] while football is the country's most popular sport.[502] Its national team won the ASEAN Football Championship twice in 2008 and 2018 and reached the 2007 AFC Asian Cup, quarter-finals of 2019 AFC Asian Cup,[503][504][505] its junior team of under-23 became the runners-up of 2018 AFC U-23 Championship and reached fourth place in 2018 Asian Games, while the under-20 managed to qualify the 2017 FIFA U-20 World Cup for the first time in their football history. And the under-17 achieved the Fourth place per 10 Teams of the 2000 AFC U-16 Championship.[506][507] The national football women's team also traditionally dominates the Southeast Asian Games, along with its chief rival, Thailand. Other Western sports such as badminton, tennis, volleyball, ping-pong and chess are also widely popular. Vietnam has participated in the Summer Olympic Games since 1952. After the partition of the country in 1954, only South Vietnam competed in the games, sending athletes to the 1956 and 1972 Olympics. Since the reunification of Vietnam in 1976, it has competed as the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, attending every Summer Olympics from 1988 onwards. The present Vietnam Olympic Committee was formed in 1976 and recognised by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) in 1979.[508] Vietnam has never participated in the Winter Olympic Games. In 2016, Vietnam won their first gold medal at the Olympics.[509] Basketball has become an increasingly popular sport in Vietnam, especially in Ho Chi Minh City, Hanoi and Sóc Trăng.[510]
See also
Notes
- ^ The census data was also cited in the United States Department of State's 2022 Report on International Religious Freedom regarding Vietnam. However, the report indicated that this figure did not include the potentially significant number of individuals who engage in Buddhist practices to a certain extent without being formally participated in a Buddhist religious group.[3] An earlier United States Department of State report from 2019 revealed that 26.4 percent of the population identified with an organized religion. This breakdown included 14.9 percent identifying as Buddhist, 7.4 percent as Roman Catholic, 1.5 percent as Hoa Hao Buddhist, 1.2 percent as Cao Dai, and 1.1 percent as Protestant. The remainder did not identify with any religious group or observed beliefs such as animism or the reverence of ancestors, tutelary and protective saints, national heroes, or esteemed local figures.[4]
- ^ In effect since 1 January 2014[6]
- ^ The area of Vietnam mentioned here is based on the land area statistics provided by the Vietnamese government. However, alternative figures exist. According to the CIA World Factbook, Vietnam's total area is 331,210 square kilometers,[8] while the BBC cites a slightly different measurement of 331,699 square kilometers.[9]
- ^ Vietnamese: Việt Nam [vîət nāːm]
- ^ The spelling "Viet Nam" or the full Vietnamese form "Việt Nam" is sometimes used in English by local and government-operated media. "Viet Nam" is, in fact, formally designated and recognized by the Government of Vietnam, the United Nations and the International Organization for Standardization as the standardized country name. See also other spellings.
- ^ Alternatively the Socialist Republic of Viet Nam with a different spelling
- ^ The other one being Laos
- ^ a b At first, Gia Long requested the name "Nam Việt", but the Jiaqing Emperor refused.[16][23]
- ^ Neither the American government nor Ngô Đình Diệm's State of Vietnam signed anything at the 1954 Geneva Conference. The non-communist Vietnamese delegation objected strenuously to any division of Vietnam; however, the French accepted the Việt Minh proposal[118] that Vietnam be united by elections under the supervision of "local commissions".[119] The United States, with the support of South Vietnam and the United Kingdom, countered with the "American Plan",[120] which provided for United Nations-supervised unification elections. The plan, however, was rejected by Soviet and other communist delegations.[121]
References
- ^ "Vietnam". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. 18 April 2023. Archived from the original on 10 June 2021. Retrieved 27 April 2023.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j General Statistics Office of Vietnam 2019.
- ^ 2022 Report on International Religious Freedom: Vietnam (Report). Office of International Religious Freedom, United States Department of State. 2022. Archived from the original on 11 February 2024. Retrieved 11 February 2024.
- ^ Vietnam Government Committee for Religious Affairs, 2018, cited in "2019 Report on International Religious Freedom: Vietnam". United States Department of State. Archived from the original on 26 September 2020. Retrieved 12 October 2020.
- ^ "Constitution of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam". FAOLEX Database. Food and Agriculture Organization. Archived from the original on 20 January 2024. Retrieved 20 January 2024.
The Constitution defines Vietnam as [having] a socialist rule of law, State of the people, by the people, and for the people. Vietnam is a unitary state ruled by [a] one-party system with coordination among State bodies in exercising legislative, executive and judicial rights.
- ^ Việt Nam News 2014.
- ^ Phê duyệt và công bố kết quả thống kê diện tích đất đai năm 2022 [Approval and announcement of land area statistics for 2022] (PDF) (Decision 3048/QĐ-BTNMT) (in Vietnamese). Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (Vietnam). 18 October 2023.[permanent dead link]
- ^ "Vietnam". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. 17 January 2024. Archived from the original on 10 June 2021. Retrieved 23 January 2024.
- ^ "Vietnam country profile". BBC News. 24 February 2020. Archived from the original on 28 May 2020. Retrieved 27 January 2021.
- ^ Socio-economic situation in the fourth quarter and 2023 (Report). General Statistics Office of Vietnam. 29 December 2023. Archived from the original on 12 February 2024. Retrieved 12 February 2024.
- ^ An Chi (31 December 2023). "Dân số trung bình của Việt Nam năm 2023 đạt 100,3 triệu người" [Vietnam's Average Population Reaches 100.3 Million People in 2023]. Nhân Dân (in Vietnamese). Archived from the original on 12 February 2024. Retrieved 12 February 2024.
- ^ a b c d e f "World Economic Outlook Database, April 2024 Edition. (Vietnam)". www.imf.org. International Monetary Fund. 16 April 2024. Archived from the original on 16 April 2024. Retrieved 17 April 2024.
- ^ World Bank 2020c.
- ^ "Human Development Report 2023/24" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 13 March 2024. p. 289. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 March 2024. Retrieved 13 March 2024.
- ^ a b Brindley, Erica Fox (2015). Ancient China and the Yue Perceptions and Identities on the Southern Frontier, c.400 BCE–50 CE. Cambridge University Press. p. 27.
The term "Yue" survives today in the name of the Vietnamese state (yue nan 越南, or, "Viet south" – "Viet of the South," – as the Vietnamese likely took it; or "South of the Viet" – as the Chinese likely took it
- ^ a b Woods 2002, p. 38.
- ^ a b c Norman & Mei 1976.
- ^ a b c d Meacham 1996.
- ^ Yue Hashimoto 1972, p. 1.
- ^ Knoblock & Riegel 2001, p. 510.
- ^ Lieberman 2003, p. 405.
- ^ Phan 1976, p. 510.
- ^ Shaofei & Guoqing 2016.
- ^ a b Ooi 2004, p. 932.
- ^ Tonnesson & Antlov 1996, p. 117.
- ^ Tonnesson & Antlov 1996, p. 126.
- ^ Derevianko, A. P.; Kandyba, A. V.; Nguyen, Khac Su; Gladyshev, S. A.; Nguyen, Gia Doi; Lebedev, V. A.; Chekha, A. M.; Rybalko, A. G.; Kharevich, V. M.; Tsybankov, A. A. (21 September 2018). "The Discovery of a Bifacial Industry in Vietnam". Archaeology, Ethnology & Anthropology of Eurasia. 46 (3): 3–21. doi:10.17746/1563-0110.2018.46.3.003-021. S2CID 229297187.
- ^ Marwick, Ben; Pham, Son Thanh; Brewer, Rachel; Wang, Li-Ying (14 August 2021). "Tektite geoarchaeology in mainland Southeast Asia". PCI Archaeology. doi:10.31235/osf.io/93fpa. S2CID 243640447. Archived from the original on 17 January 2022. Retrieved 17 January 2022.
- ^ McKinney 2009.
- ^ Akazawa, Aoki & Kimura 1992, p. 321.
- ^ Rabett 2012, p. 109.
- ^ Dennell & Porr 2014, p. 41.
- ^ Matsumura et al. 2008, p. 12.
- ^ Matsumura et al. 2001.
- ^ Oxenham & Tayles 2006, p. 36.
- ^ Nguyen 1985, p. 16.
- ^ Karlström & Källén 2002, p. 83.
- ^ Oxenham & Buckley 2015, p. 329.
- ^ Tsang, Cheng-hwa (24 January 2008). "Recent advances in the Iron Age archaeology of Taiwan". Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association. 20 (0). doi:10.7152/bippa.v20i0.11751. ISSN 1835-1794.
- ^ Turton, M. (2021). Notes from central Taiwan: Our brother to the south. Taiwan's relations with the Philippines date back millennia, so it's a mystery that it's not the jewel in the crown of the New Southbound Policy. Taiwan Times.
- ^ Everington, K. (2017). Birthplace of Austronesians is Taiwan, capital was Taitung: Scholar. Taiwan News.
- ^ Bellwood, P., H. Hung, H., Lizuka, Y. (2011). Taiwan Jade in the Philippines: 3,000 Years of Trade and Long-distance Interaction. Semantic Scholar.
- ^ a b Higham 1984.
- ^ a b Nang Chung & Giang Hai 2017, p. 31.
- ^ de Laet & Herrmann 1996, p. 408.
- ^ a b c Calò 2009, p. 51.
- ^ Kiernan 2017, p. 31.
- ^ Cooke, Li & Anderson 2011, p. 46.
- ^ Pelley 2002, p. 151.
- ^ Cottrell 2009, p. 14.
- ^ Đức Trần & Thư Hà 2000, p. 8.
- ^ Yao 2016, p. 62.
- ^ Holmgren 1980.
- ^ Taylor 1983, p. 30.
- ^ Pelley 2002, p. 177.
- ^ Cottrell 2009, p. 15.
- ^ Thái Nguyên & Mừng Nguyẽ̂n 1958, p. 33.
- ^ Chesneaux 1966, p. 20.
- ^ anon. 1972, p. 24.
- ^ Tuyet Tran & Reid 2006, p. 32.
- ^ Hiẻ̂n Lê 2003, p. 65.
- ^ Hong Lien & Sharrock 2014, p. 55.
- ^ a b Kiernan 2017, p. 226.
- ^ Cottrell 2009, p. 16.
- ^ Hong Lien & Sharrock 2014, p. 95.
- ^ Keyes 1995, p. 183.
- ^ Hong Lien & Sharrock 2014, p. 111.
- ^ Hong Lien & Sharrock 2014, p. 120.
- ^ Kiernan 2017, p. 265.
- ^ Anderson & Whitmore 2014, p. 158.
- ^ a b Vo 2011, p. 13.
- ^ Ooi & Anh Tuan 2015, p. 212.
- ^ a b Phuong Linh 2016, p. 39.
- ^ Anderson & Whitmore 2014, p. 174.
- ^ Leonard 1984, p. 131.
- ^ a b Ooi 2004, p. 356.
- ^ a b c Hoàng 2007, p. 50.
- ^ a b Tran 2018.
- ^ Hoàng 2007, p. 52.
- ^ Hoàng 2007, p. 53.
- ^ Li 1998, p. 89.
- ^ Lockard 2010, p. 479.
- ^ Tran 2017, p. 27.
- ^ McLeod 1991, p. 22.
- ^ Woods 2002, p. 42.
- ^ Cortada 1994, p. 29.
- ^ Mojarro, Jorge (10 March 2020). "The day the Filipinos conquered Saigon". The Manila Times. Archived from the original on 21 November 2022. Retrieved 12 April 2021.
- ^ Keith 2012, p. 46.
- ^ Keith 2012, pp. 49–50.
- ^ McLeod 1991, p. 61.
- ^ Ooi 2004, p. 520.
- ^ Cook 2001, p. 396.
- ^ Frankum 2011, p. 172.
- ^ Nhu Nguyen 2016, p. 37.
- ^ Richardson 1876, p. 269.
- ^ Keith 2012, p. 53.
- ^ Anh Ngo 2016, p. 71.
- ^ Quach Langlet 1991, p. 360.
- ^ Ramsay 2008, p. 171.
- ^ Zinoman 2000.
- ^ Lim 2014, p. 33.
- ^ Largo 2002, p. 112.
- ^ Khánh Huỳnh 1986, p. 98.
- ^ Odell & Castillo 2008, p. 82.
- ^ Thomas 2012.
- ^ Miller 1990, p. 293.
- ^ Gettleman et al. 1995, p. 4.
- ^ Thanh Niên 2015.
- ^ Vietnam Net 2015.
- ^ a b Joes 1992, p. 95.
- ^ a b c d e Pike 2011, p. 192.
- ^ Gunn 2014, p. 270.
- ^ Neville 2007, p. 175.
- ^ Smith 2007, p. 6.
- ^ Neville 2007, p. 124.
- ^ Tonnesson 2011, p. 66.
- ^ Waite 2012, p. 89.
- ^ Gravel 1971, p. 134.
- ^ Gravel 1971, p. 119.
- ^ Gravel 1971, p. 140.
- ^ Kort 2017, p. 96.
- ^ Olson 2012, p. 43.
- ^ DK 2017, p. 39.
- ^ a b c van Dijk et al. 2013, p. 68.
- ^ Guttman, John (25 July 2013). "Why did Sweden support the Viet Cong?". History Net. Archived from the original on 17 May 2016. Retrieved 25 September 2019.
- ^ Moïse 2017, p. 56.
- ^ Vu 2007.
- ^ Turner 1975, p. 143.
- ^ Heneghan 1969, p. 160.
- ^ Turner 1975, p. 177.
- ^ Crozier 1955.
- ^ Turner 1975, pp. 174–178.
- ^ Gilbert 2013, p. 292.
- ^ a b Jukes 1973, p. 209.
- ^ a b Olsen 2007, p. 92.
- ^ Khoo 2011, p. 27.
- ^ Muehlenbeck & Muehlenbeck 2012, p. 221.
- ^ Willbanks 2013, p. 53.
- ^ Duy Hinh & Dinh Tho 2015, p. 238.
- ^ Isserman & Bowman 2009, p. 46.
- ^ Alterman 2005, p. 213.
- ^ Lewy 1980.
- ^ Gibbons 2014, p. 166.
- ^ Li 2012, p. 67.
- ^ Gillet 2011.
- ^ Dallek 2018.
- ^ Turner 1975, p. 251.
- ^ Frankum 2011, p. 209.
- ^ Eggleston 2014, p. 1.
- ^ History 2018.
- ^ Tucker 2011, p. 749.
- ^ Brigham 1998, p. 86.
- ^ The New York Times 1976.
- ^ Hirschman, Preston & Manh Loi 1995.
- ^ Shenon 1995.
- ^ Obermeyer, Murray & Gakidou 2008.
- ^ Dohrenwend et al. 2018, p. 69.
- ^ "VIETNAM REFUGEES PUT AT 1.4 MILLION". The New York Times. 26 January 1975. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 9 August 2021. Retrieved 9 August 2021.
- ^ Elliott 2010, pp. 499, 512–513.
- ^ Sagan & Denny 1982.
- ^ Spokesman-Review 1977, p. 8.
- ^ Moise 1988, p. 12.
- ^ Kissi 2006, p. 144.
- ^ Meggle 2004, p. 166.
- ^ Hampson 1996, p. 175.
- ^ Khoo 2011, p. 131.
- ^ a b BBC News 1997.
- ^ Văn Phúc 2014.
- ^ Murray 1997, pp. 24–25.
- ^ a b c Bich Loan 2007.
- ^ Howe 2016, p. 20.
- ^ Goodkind 1995.
- ^ Gallup 2002.
- ^ a b Wagstaff, van Doorslaer & Watanabe 2003.
- ^ "Vietnam's ruling Communist Party re-elects chief Trong for rare third term". France 24. 31 January 2021. Archived from the original on 31 January 2021. Retrieved 18 May 2024.
- ^ "Vietnam". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. 17 January 2024. Archived from the original on 10 June 2021. Retrieved 23 January 2024.
- ^ "Vietnam country profile". BBC News. 24 February 2020. Archived from the original on 28 May 2020. Retrieved 27 January 2021.
- ^ Nasuchon 2008, p. 7.
- ^ Protected Areas and Development Partnership 2003, p. 13.
- ^ Fröhlich et al. 2013, p. 5.
- ^ Natural Resources and Environment Program 1995, p. 56.
- ^ AgroViet Newsletter 2007.
- ^ Huu Chiem 1993, p. 180.
- ^ Minh Hoang et al. 2016.
- ^ Huu Chiem 1993, p. 183.
- ^ Hong Truong, Ye & Stive 2017, p. 757.
- ^ Vietnamese Waters Zone.
- ^ Cosslett & Cosslett 2017, p. 13.
- ^ Van De et al. 2008.
- ^ Hong Phuong 2012, p. 3.
- ^ Việt Nam News 2016.
- ^ Vietnam National Administration of Tourism 2014.
- ^ Boobbyer & Spooner 2013, p. 173.
- ^ Cosslett & Cosslett 2013, p. 13.
- ^ Anh 2016a.
- ^ The Telegraph.
- ^ Vu 1979, p. 66.
- ^ Riehl & Augstein 1973, p. 1.
- ^ a b Buleen 2017.
- ^ Vietnam Net 2018a.
- ^ "Vietnamese amazed at snow-capped northern mountains". VnExpress. 11 January 2021.
- ^ a b Thi Anh.
- ^ Overland 2017.
- ^ "Report: Flooded Future: Global vulnerability to sea level rise worse than previously understood". climatecentral.org. 29 October 2019. Archived from the original on 2 November 2019. Retrieved 3 November 2019.
- ^ a b c d e f Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment.
- ^ UNESCO World Heritage Convention 1994.
- ^ UNESCO World Heritage Convention 2003.
- ^ Pha Le 2016.
- ^ BirdLife International 2016.
- ^ Kinver 2011.
- ^ a b Dall 2017.
- ^ Dang Vu & Nielsen 2018.
- ^ Nam Dang & Nielsen 2019.
- ^ Banout et al. 2014.
- ^ a b Cerre 2016.
- ^ Brown 2018.
- ^ Agence France-Presse 2016.
- ^ MacLeod 2012.
- ^ United States Agency for International Development.
- ^ Stewart 2018.
- ^ Việt Nam News 2018a.
- ^ Nikkei Asian Review 2018.
- ^ NHK World-Japan 2018.
- ^ Agent Orange Record.
- ^ Grantham, H. S.; et al. (2020). "Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity – Supplementary Material". Nature Communications. 11 (1): 5978. Bibcode:2020NatCo..11.5978G. doi:10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 7723057. PMID 33293507.
- ^ Berg et al. 2007.
- ^ Merola et al. 2014.
- ^ Miguel & Roland 2005.
- ^ Government of the United Kingdom 2017.
- ^ LM Report 2000.
- ^ United Nations Development Programme 2018.
- ^ United States Department of State 2006.
- ^ Van Thanh 2016.
- ^ a b c d e f Government of Vietnam (II).
- ^ Greenfield 1994, p. 204.
- ^ Baccini, Impullitti & Malesky 2017.
- ^ The Economist 2008.
- ^ Embassy of Vietnam in USA.
- ^ Ministry of Justice 1999.
- ^ "Vietnam parliament elects new president Vo Van Thuong". www.aljazeera.com. Archived from the original on 5 February 2024. Retrieved 19 September 2023.
- ^ "Vietnam picks new PM and president for next 5 years". Nikkei Asia. Archived from the original on 26 March 2024. Retrieved 19 September 2023.
- ^ "New president of Vietnam nominated by Communist Party: Report". www.aljazeera.com. Archived from the original on 27 March 2024. Retrieved 19 September 2023.
- ^ "Vietnam's security chief To Lam becomes new president". Al Jazeera. 22 May 2024.
- ^ Japan Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism.
- ^ a b c Thayer 1994.
- ^ Thanh Hai 2016, p. 177.
- ^ Ministry of Foreign Affairs 2018.
- ^ Ministry of Foreign Affairs 2013.
- ^ a b Ministry of Foreign Affairs 2007.
- ^ Ministry of Foreign Affairs 2014.
- ^ Dayley 2018, p. 98.
- ^ Mitchell 1995.
- ^ Green 2012.
- ^ Smith 2005, p. 386.
- ^ "Clinton Makes Historic Visit to Vietnam". abcnews.com. Archived from the original on 2 October 2023. Retrieved 18 September 2023.
- ^ Institute of Regional Studies 2001, p. 66.
- ^ Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
- ^ Garamone 2016.
- ^ Hutt 2020.
- ^ Corr 2019.
- ^ Tran 2020.
- ^ Taylor & Rutherford 2011, p. 50.
- ^ Yan 2016.
- ^ a b Voice of Vietnam 2016.
- ^ The Economic Times 2018.
- ^ The Japan Times 2015.
- ^ Voice of Vietnam 2018b.
- ^ Ministry of Defence Russia 2018.
- ^ The Telegraph 2012.
- ^ United Nations Treaty Collection.
- ^ Giap 2017.
- ^ a b BBC News 2009.
- ^ Mydans 2009.
- ^ "VIET NAM – UN ACT". UN-Act. Archived from the original on 10 April 2020. Retrieved 27 March 2020.
- ^ "Women, children and babies: human trafficking to China is on the rise". Asia News. 11 July 2019. Archived from the original on 20 February 2020. Retrieved 27 March 2020.
- ^ "Vietnam's Human Trafficking Problem Is Too Big to Ignore". The Diplomat. 8 November 2019. Archived from the original on 28 April 2023. Retrieved 27 March 2020.
- ^ Cornell University.
- ^ Kim Phuong 2014, p. 1.
- ^ Kimura 1986.
- ^ Adhikari, Kirkpatrick & Weiss 1992, p. 249.
- ^ Ngoc Vo & Le 2014, p. 7.
- ^ Van Tho 2003, p. 11.
- ^ Litvack, Litvack & Rondinelli 1999, p. 31.
- ^ Freeman 2002.
- ^ Litvack, Litvack & Rondinelli 1999, p. 33.
- ^ a b Van Tho 2003, p. 5.
- ^ Hoang Vuong & Dung Tran 2009.
- ^ Hoang Vuong 2014.
- ^ Largo 2002, p. 66.
- ^ International Monetary Fund 1999, p. 23.
- ^ Cockburn 1994.
- ^ Pincus 2015, p. 27; this article refers to the so-called "Vent for surplus" theory of international trade.
- ^ Quang Vinh, p. 13.
- ^ "WTO | Accessions: Viet Nam". www.wto.org. Archived from the original on 27 September 2023. Retrieved 18 May 2024.
- ^ Asian Development Bank 2010, p. 388.
- ^ Thanh Niên 2010.
- ^ Vierra & Vierra 2011, p. 5.
- ^ a b Vandemoortele & Bird 2010.
- ^ a b Cuong Le et al. 2010, p. 23.
- ^ H. Dang & Glewwe 2017, p. 9.
- ^ Vandemoortele 2010.
- ^ UPI.com 2013.
- ^ Fong-Sam 2010, p. 26.
- ^ Việt Nam News 2018b.
- ^ Vietnam News Agency 2018.
- ^ Tuổi Trẻ News 2012.
- ^ Vietnam Net 2016a.
- ^ Mai 2017.
- ^ Voice of Vietnam 2018c.
- ^ Nielsen 2007, p. 1.
- ^ Summers 2014.
- ^ Truong, Vo & Nguyen 2018, p. 172.
- ^ "Fisheries Country Profile: Vietnam". Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center. June 2018. Archived from the original on 24 April 2021. Retrieved 24 April 2021.
- ^ a b DigInfo 2007.
- ^ a b Borel 2010.
- ^ Việt Nam News 2010.
- ^ Koblitz 2009, p. 198.
- ^ CNRS 2010.
- ^ Koppes 2010.
- ^ Vietnam National Space Centre 2016.
- ^ Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology 2017.
- ^ Raslan 2017.
- ^ UNESCO Media Services 2016.
- ^ WIPO (9 May 2024). Global Innovation Index 2023, 15th Edition. World Intellectual Property Organization. doi:10.34667/tind.46596. ISBN 978-92-805-3432-0. Archived from the original on 22 October 2023. Retrieved 28 October 2023.
{{cite book}}:|website=ignored (help) - ^ "Global Innovation Index". INSEAD Knowledge. 28 October 2013. Archived from the original on 2 September 2021. Retrieved 2 September 2021.
- ^ a b UNESCO Publishing, pp. 713–714.
- ^ a b Vietnam National Administration of Tourism 2018.
- ^ Quy 2018.
- ^ Terzian 2018.
- ^ Crook 2014, p. 7.
- ^ a b c General Statistics Office of Vietnam 2010.
- ^ Huu Duc et al. 2013, p. 2080.
- ^ General Statistics Office of Vietnam 2011.
- ^ Linh Le & Anh Trinh 2016.
- ^ Sohr et al. 2016, p. 220.
- ^ a b Chin 2018.
- ^ The Japan Times 2009.
- ^ Vietnam+ 2008.
- ^ The New York Times 2018.
- ^ a b Vietnam Net 2018b.
- ^ South East Asia Iron and Steel Institute 2009.
- ^ Chi 2017.
- ^ Tatarski 2017.
- ^ Hoang 2016, p. 1.
- ^ Vietnam Investment Review 2018.
- ^ Ha, Giang & Denslow 2012.
- ^ Index Mundi 2018.
- ^ Intellasia 2010.
- ^ Electricity of Vietnam 2017, p. 10.
- ^ a b Electricity of Vietnam 2017, p. 12.
- ^ Nguyen et al. 2016.
- ^ Nikkei Asian Review.
- ^ Viet Trung, Quoc Viet & Van Chat 2016, p. 70.
- ^ Viet Trung, Quoc Viet & Van Chat 2016, p. 64.
- ^ a b Pham 2015, p. 6.
- ^ Pham 2015, p. 7.
- ^ Việt Nam News 2012.
- ^ Oxford Business Group 2017.
- ^ British Business Group Vietnam 2017, p. 1.
- ^ a b British Business Group Vietnam 2017, p. 2.
- ^ University of Technology Sydney 2018.
- ^ Government of the Netherlands 2016.
- ^ Government of the Netherlands 2018.
- ^ Anh 2018.
- ^ UNICEF 2015.
- ^ Việt Nam News 2018c.
- ^ Việt Nam News 2018d.
- ^ a b c Jones 1998, p. 21.
- ^ United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs.
- ^ Fraser 1980.
- ^ Ministry of Citizenship and Immigration 2013, p. 1.
- ^ Government of Vietnam (I).
- ^ Cultural Orientation Resource Centre, p. 7.
- ^ Montagnard Human Rights Organisation.
- ^ Koskoff 2008, p. 1316.
- ^ Dodd & Lewis 2003, p. 531.
- ^ Amer 1996.
- ^ Feinberg 2016.
- ^ United Nations Population Fund 2009, p. 117.
- ^ World Bank 2002.
- ^ United Nations Population Fund 2009, p. 102.
- ^ a b c d Cira et al. 2011, p. 194.
- ^ Tiezzi 2016.
- ^ Trương 2018, p. 19.
- ^ General Statistics Office (2019). Kết quả Toàn bộ Tổng điều tra dân số và nhà ở năm 2019 (Completed Results of the 2019 Viet Nam Population and Housing Census). Statistical Publishing House. ISBN 978-604-75-1532-5. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 January 2021. Retrieved 20 October 2021.
- ^ "Nghị quyết số 1111/NQ-UBTVQH14 năm 2020 về việc sắp xếp các đơn vị hành chính cấp huyện, cấp xã và thành lập thành phố Thủ Đức thuộc Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh". 9 December 2020. Archived from the original on 9 January 2021. Retrieved 23 July 2021.
- ^ "Nghị quyết số 1264/NQ-UBTVQH14 năm 2021 về việc điều chỉnh địa giới hành chính các đơn vị hành chính cấp huyện và sắp xếp, thành lập các phường thuộc thành phố Huế, tỉnh Thừa Thiên Huế". 27 April 2021. Archived from the original on 20 May 2021. Retrieved 23 July 2021.
- ^ a b "Nghị quyết số 857/NQ-UBTVQH14 năm 2020 về việc thành lập thành phố Dĩ An, thành phố Thuận An và các phường thuộc thị xã Tân Uyên, tỉnh Bình Dương". 10 January 2020. Archived from the original on 22 April 2021. Retrieved 23 July 2021.
- ^ "Nghị quyết số 788/NQ-UBTVQH14 năm 2019 về việc sắp xếp các đơn vị hành chính cấp huyện, cấp xã thuộc tỉnh Hải Dương". 16 October 2019. Archived from the original on 3 December 2019. Retrieved 23 July 2021.
- ^ "Nghị quyết số 837/NQ-UBTVQH14 năm 2019 về việc sắp xếp các đơn vị hành chính cấp huyện, cấp xã thuộc tỉnh Quảng Ninh". 17 December 2019. Archived from the original on 30 December 2019. Retrieved 23 July 2021.
- ^ Cultural Orientation Resource Centre, p. 10.
- ^ Kirkpatrick, Andy; Liddicoat, Anthony J. (17 April 2019). The Routledge International Handbook of Language Education Policy in Asia. Routledge. pp. 187, 192. ISBN 978-1-317-35449-9.
- ^ French Senate 1997.
- ^ Van Van, p. 8.
- ^ Van Van, p. 9.
- ^ Government of the United Kingdom 2018.
- ^ Wai-ming 2002, p. 3.
- ^ Anh Dinh 2016, p. 63.
- ^ Hirano 2016.
- ^ Thống Nhất. "Nhà trường chọn 1 trong 7 thứ tiếng làm ngoại ngữ 1". Hànộimới. Archived from the original on 21 June 2022. Retrieved 21 June 2022.
- ^ Nguyễn, Tuệ (8 March 2021). "Vì sao tiếng Hàn, tiếng Đức là ngoại ngữ 1 trong trường phổ thông?". Thanh Niên. Archived from the original on 21 June 2022. Retrieved 21 June 2022.
- ^ Ngọc Diệp (4 March 2021). "Tiếng Hàn, tiếng Đức được đưa vào chương trình phổ thông, học sinh được tự chọn". Tuổi Trẻ. Archived from the original on 21 June 2022. Retrieved 21 June 2022.
- ^ Phạm, Mai (20 April 2022). "Các trường hợp được miễn thi ngoại ngữ kỳ thi tốt nghiệp THPT 2022" [Exemption from the foreign language test in the high school graduation exam]. VietnamPlus. Archived from the original on 21 June 2022. Retrieved 21 June 2022.
- ^ a b Ministry of Justice 1992.
- ^ Ministry of Justice 2004b.
- ^ Zuckerman 2007, p. 11.
- ^ General Statistics Office of Vietnam 2009.
- ^ Bielefeldt 2014.
- ^ Woods 2002, p. 34.
- ^ Keith 2012, pp. 42, 72.
- ^ Lamport 2018, p. 898.
- ^ Largo 2002, p. 168.
- ^ a b c Van Hoang 2017, p. 1.
- ^ Cultural Orientation Resource Centre, pp. 5, 7.
- ^ United States Department of State 2005.
- ^ Kỳ Phương & Lockhart 2011, p. 35.
- ^ Levinson & Christensen 2002, p. 89.
- ^ Sharma 2009, p. 48.
- ^ UNICEF.
- ^ Ha Trân 2014.
- ^ World Bank 2013.
- ^ World Bank 2015.
- ^ Pham 2012.
- ^ Chapman & Liu 2013.
- ^ de Mora & Wood 2014, p. 55.
- ^ Vietnam Net 2016b.
- ^ Index Mundi 2016.
- ^ World Bank 2016a.
- ^ World Bank 2016b.
- ^ World Bank 2017.
- ^ The Harvard Crimson 1972.
- ^ Trung Chien 2006, p. 65.
- ^ BBC News 2005.
- ^ Haberman 2014.
- ^ Gustafsson 2010, p. 125.
- ^ Van Nam et al. 2005.
- ^ Trinh et al. 2016.
- ^ a b McNeil 2016.
- ^ Lieberman & Wagstaff 2009, p. 40.
- ^ Manyin 2005, p. 4.
- ^ Vietnam Women's Union 2005.
- ^ World Bank 2018a.
- ^ BBC News 2018.
- ^ Tung Hieu 2015, p. 71.
- ^ a b c Nhu Nguyen 2016, p. 32.
- ^ Endres 2001.
- ^ a b Grigoreva 2014, p. 4.
- ^ UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage 2012.
- ^ a b Zhu et al. 2017, p. 142.
- ^ a b McLeod & Thi Dieu 2001, p. 8.
- ^ Momoki 1996, p. 36.
- ^ Kỳ Phương & Lockhart 2011, p. 84.
- ^ Vo 2012, p. 96.
- ^ Gallop 2017.
- ^ Vietnamese-American Association.
- ^ Chonchirdsin 2016.
- ^ Waitemata District Health Board 2015, p. 2.
- ^ Phuong 2012.
- ^ Lewandowski 2011, p. 12.
- ^ a b Howard 2016, p. 90.
- ^ Chico 2013, p. 354.
- ^ Pha Le 2014.
- ^ Vietnam Net 2017a.
- ^ Huong 2010.
- ^ Norton 2015.
- ^ Le 2008.
- ^ Vo 2012, p. 4.
- ^ Tran & Le 2017, p. 5.
- ^ Trần 1972.
- ^ Miettinen 1992, p. 163.
- ^ Trần 1985.
- ^ Voice of Vietnam 2018d.
- ^ Duy 2016.
- ^ Phương 2018.
- ^ Chen 2018, p. 194.
- ^ Ministry of Justice 2004a.
- ^ Xuan Dinh 2000.
- ^ Datta & Mendizabal 2018.
- ^ Wilkey 2002.
- ^ OpenNet Initiative 2012.
- ^ Reporters Without Borders.
- ^ Berkman Klein Center 2006.
- ^ Vietnam Culture Information Network 2014.
- ^ Special Broadcasting Service 2013.
- ^ Corapi 2010.
- ^ Clark & Miller 2017.
- ^ Nguyen 2011.
- ^ Thaker & Barton 2012, p. 170.
- ^ Williams 2017.
- ^ Batruny 2014.
- ^ Ministry of Justice 2012.
- ^ Travel 2017, p. 37.
- ^ Loan 2018.
- ^ Anh 2016b.
- ^ Trieu Dan 2017, p. 92.
- ^ Pike 2018.
- ^ Travel 2017, p. 34.
- ^ Englar 2006, p. 23.
- ^ Anderson & Lee 2005, p. 217.
- ^ Green 2001, p. 548.
- ^ Nghia & Luan 2017.
- ^ FourFourTwo 2017.
- ^ China Daily 2008.
- ^ The Saigon Times Daily 2018.
- ^ Gomes 2019.
- ^ Rick 2018.
- ^ Yan, Jun & Long 2018.
- ^ International Olympic Committee 2018.
- ^ Sims 2016.
- ^ Vietnam basketball Archived 25 February 2020 at the Wayback Machine Vietnam Online. Accessed 19 February 2020.
Sources
- Dror, Olga (2018). Making Two Vietnams: War and Youth Identities, 1965–1975. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-47012-4.
- Goscha, Christopher (2016). Vietnam: A New History. Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-09436-3.
- Holcombe, Alec (2020). Mass Mobilization in the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, 1945–1960. University of Hawaiʻi Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-8447-5.
- Nguyen, Lien-Hang T. (2012). Hanoi's War: An International History of the War for Peace in Vietnam. University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0-8078-3551-7.
- Vu, Tuong; Fear, Sean, eds. (2020). The Republic of Vietnam, 1955–1975: Vietnamese Perspectives on Nation Building. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-1-5017-4513-3.
- Richardson, John (1876). A school manual of modern geography. Physical and political. Publisher not identified.
- Thái Nguyên, Văn; Mừng Nguyẽ̂n, Văn (1958). A Short History of Viet-Nam. Vietnamese-American Association.
- Chesneaux, Jean (1966). The Vietnamese Nations: Contribution to a History. Current Book Distributors.
- Heneghan, George Martin (1969). Nationalism, Communism and the National Liberation Front of Vietnam: Dilemma for American Foreign Policy. Department of Political Science, Stanford University.
- Gravel, Mike (1971). The Pentagon Papers: The Defense Department History of United States Decision-making on Vietnam. Beacon Press. ISBN 978-0-8070-0526-2.
- Peasant and Labour. 1972.
- Yue Hashimoto, Oi-kan (1972). Phonology of Cantonese. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-08442-0.
- Jukes, Geoffrey (1973). The Soviet Union in Asia. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-02393-2.
- Turner, Robert F. (1975). Vietnamese communism, its origins and development. Hoover Institution Press, Stanford University. ISBN 978-0-8179-6431-3.
- Phan, Khoang (1976). Việt sử: xứ đàng trong, 1558–1777. Cuộc nam-tié̂n của dân-tộc Việt-Nam. Nhà Sách Khai Trí (in Vietnamese). Xuân thu. Archived from the original on 4 January 2024. Retrieved 9 May 2020.
- Vu, Tu Lap (1979). Vietnam: Geographical Data. Foreign Languages Publishing House.
- Lewy, Guenter (1980). America in Vietnam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-991352-7.
- Holmgren, Jennifer (1980). Chinese colonisation of northern Vietnam: administrative geography and political development in the Tongking Delta, first to sixth centuries A.D. Australian National University, Faculty of Asian Studies: distributed by Australian University Press. ISBN 978-0-909879-12-9.
- Taylor, Keith Weller (1983). The Birth of Vietnam. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-04428-9.
- Leonard, Jane Kate (1984). Wei Yuan and China's Rediscovery of the Maritime World. Harvard Univ Asia Center. ISBN 978-0-674-94855-6.
- Tran, Tu Binh (1985). David G. Marr (ed.). The Red Earth: A Vietnamese Memoir of Life on a Colonial Rubber Plantation. Southeast Asia Series. Translated by John Spragens, Jr. Athens, OH: Ohio University Press. ISBN 978-0-896-80119-6.
- Khánh Huỳnh, Kim (1986). Vietnamese Communism, 1925–1945. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-9397-3.
- Miller, Robert Hopkins (1990). United States and Vietnam 1787–1941. DIANE Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7881-0810-5.
- McLeod, Mark W. (1991). The Vietnamese Response to French Intervention, 1862–1874. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-275-93562-7.
- Joes, Anthony James (1992). Modern Guerrilla Insurgency. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-0-275-94263-2.
- Miettinen, Jukka O. (1992). Classical Dance and Theatre in South-East Asia. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-588595-8.
- Adhikari, Ramesh; Kirkpatrick, Colin H.; Weiss, John (1992). Industrial and Trade Policy Reform in Developing Countries. Manchester University Press. ISBN 978-0-7190-3553-1.
- Akazawa, Takeru; Aoki, Kenichi; Kimura, Tasuku (1992). The evolution and dispersal of modern humans in Asia. Hokusen-sha. ISBN 978-4-938424-41-1.
- Cortada, James W. (1994). Spain in the Nineteenth-century World: Essays on Spanish Diplomacy, 1789–1898. Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-27655-2.
- Keyes, Charles F. (1995). The Golden Peninsula: Culture and Adaptation in Mainland Southeast Asia. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-1696-4.
- Gettleman, Marvin E.; Franklin, Jane; Young, Marilyn B.; Franklin, H. Bruce (1995). Vietnam and America: A Documented History. Grove Press. ISBN 978-0-8021-3362-5.
- Proceedings of the Regional Dialogue on Biodiversity and Natural Resources Management in Mainland Southeast Asian Economies, Kunming Institute of Botany, Yunnan, China, 21–24 February 1995. Natural Resources and Environment Program, Thailand Development Research Institute Foundation. 1995.
- Hampson, Fen Osler (1996). Nurturing Peace: Why Peace Settlements Succeed Or Fail. US Institute of Peace Press. ISBN 978-1-878379-55-9.
- de Laet, Sigfried J.; Herrmann, Joachim (1996). History of Humanity: From the seventh century B.C. to the seventh century A.D. Routledge. ISBN 978-92-3-102812-0.
- Tonnesson, Stein; Antlov, Hans (1996). Asian Forms of the Nation. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-7007-0442-2.
- Murray, Geoffrey (1997). Vietnam Dawn of a New Market. St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-0-312-17392-0.
- Jones, John R. (1998). Guide to Vietnam. Bradt Publications. ISBN 978-1-898323-67-9.
- Brigham, Robert Kendall (1998). Guerrilla Diplomacy: The NLF's Foreign Relations and the Viet Nam War. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-3317-7.
- Li, Tana (1998). Nguyễn Cochinchina: Southern Vietnam in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries. SEAP Publications. ISBN 978-0-87727-722-4.
- Vietnam: Selected Issues. International Monetary Fund. 1999. ISBN 978-1-4519-8721-8.
- Litvack, Jennie; Litvack, Jennie Ilene; Rondinelli, Dennis A. (1999). Market Reform in Vietnam: Building Institutions for Development. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-1-56720-288-5.
- Đức Trần, Hồng; Thư Hà, Anh (2000). A Brief Chronology of Vietnam's History. Thế Giới Publishers.
- Cook, Bernard A. (2001). Europe Since 1945: An Encyclopedia. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-8153-4057-7.
- Knoblock, John; Riegel, Jeffrey (2001). The Annals of Lü Buwei. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-3354-0.
- Selections from Regional Press. Vol. 20. Institute of Regional Studies. 2001.
- Green, Thomas A. (2001). Martial Arts of the World: A-Q. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-150-2.
- Karlström, Anna; Källén, Anna (2002). Southeast Asian Archaeology. Östasiatiska Samlingarna (Stockholm, Sweden), European Association of Southeast Asian Archaeologists. International Conference. Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities, Stockholm. ISBN 978-91-970616-0-5.
- Levinson, David; Christensen, Karen (2002). Encyclopedia of Modern Asia. Charles Scribner's Sons. ISBN 978-0-684-31247-7.
- Pelley, Patricia M. (2002). Postcolonial Vietnam: New Histories of the National Past. Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-2966-4.
- Woods, L. Shelton (2002). Vietnam: a global studies handbook. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-416-9.
- Largo, V. (2002). Vietnam: Current Issues and Historical Background. Nova Publishers. ISBN 978-1-59033-368-6.
- Page, Melvin Eugene; Sonnenburg, Penny M. (2003). Colonialism: An International, Social, Cultural, and Political Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-335-3.
- Dodd, Jan; Lewis, Mark (2003). Vietnam. Rough Guides. ISBN 978-1-84353-095-4.
- Hiẻ̂n Lê, Năng (2003). Three victories on the Bach Dang river. Nhà xuất bản Văn hóa-thông tin.
- Lieberman, Victor (2003). Strange Parallels: Integration of the Mainland Southeast Asia in Global Context, c. 800–1830, Vol 1. Cambridge University Press.
- Protected Areas and Development Partnership (2003). Review of Protected Areas and Development in the Four Countries of the Lower Mekong River Region. ICEM. ISBN 978-0-9750332-4-1.
- Meggle, Georg (2004). Ethics of Humanitarian Interventions. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-032773-1.
- Ooi, Keat Gin (2004). Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-770-2.
- Smith, Anthony L. (2005). Southeast Asia and New Zealand: A History of Regional and Bilateral Relations. Victoria University Press. ISBN 978-0-86473-519-5.
- Alterman, Eric (2005). When Presidents Lie: A History of Official Deception and Its Consequences. Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-303604-3.
- Anderson, Wanni Wibulswasdi; Lee, Robert G. (2005). Displacements and Diasporas: Asians in the Americas. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0-8135-3611-8.
- Kissi, Edward (2006). Revolution and Genocide in Ethiopia and Cambodia. Lexington Books. ISBN 978-0-7391-1263-2.
- Oxenham, Marc; Tayles, Nancy (2006). Bioarchaeology of Southeast Asia. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-82580-1.
- Englar, Mary (2006). Vietnam: A Question and Answer Book. Capstone Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7368-6414-5.
- Tran, Nhung Tuyet; Reid, Anthony, eds. (2006). Viet Nam: Borderless Histories. University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 978-0-299-21773-0.
- Hoàng, Anh Tuấn (2007). Silk for Silver: Dutch-Vietnamese Relations, 1637–1700. Brill Publishers. ISBN 978-90-04-15601-2.
- Jeffries, Ian (2007). Vietnam: A Guide to Economic and Political Developments. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-16454-7.
- Olsen, Mari (2007). Soviet-Vietnam Relations and the Role of China 1949–64: Changing Alliances. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-17413-3.
- Neville, Peter (2007). Britain in Vietnam: Prelude to Disaster, 1945–46. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-24476-8.
- Smith, T. (2007). Britain and the Origins of the Vietnam War: UK Policy in Indo-China, 1943–50. Palgrave Macmillan UK. ISBN 978-0-230-59166-0.
- Koskoff, Ellen (2008). The Concise Garland Encyclopedia of World Music: The Middle East, South Asia, East Asia, Southeast Asia. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-99404-0.
- Ramsay, Jacob (2008). Mandarins and Martyrs: The Church and the Nguyen Dynasty in Early Nineteenth-century Vietnam. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-7954-8.
- Calò, Ambra (2009). Trails of Bronze Drums Across Early Southeast Asia: Exchange Routes and Connected Cultural Spheres. Archaeopress. ISBN 978-1-4073-0396-3.
- Sharma, Gitesh (2009). Traces of Indian Culture in Vietnam. Rajkamal Prakashan. ISBN 978-81-905401-4-8.
- Isserman, Maurice; Bowman, John Stewart (2009). Vietnam War. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4381-0015-9.
- Koblitz, Neal (2009). Random Curves: Journeys of a Mathematician. Springer Science + Business Media. ISBN 978-3-540-74078-0.
- Cottrell, Robert C. (2009). Vietnam. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4381-2147-5.
- Asian Development Bank (2010). Asian Development Outlook 2010 Update. Asian Development Bank. ISBN 978-92-9092-181-3.
- Lockard, Craig A. (2010). Societies, Networks, and Transitions, Volume 2: Since 1450. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-1-4390-8536-3.
- Elliott, Mai (2010). RAND in Southeast Asia: A History of the Vietnam War Era. RAND Corporation. ISBN 978-0-8330-4915-5.
- Gustafsson, Mai Lan (2010). War and Shadows: The Haunting of Vietnam. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-5745-6.
- Jones, Daniel (2011). Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-76575-6.
- Lewandowski, Elizabeth J. (2011). The Complete Costume Dictionary. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-4004-1.
- Pike, Francis (2011). Empires at War: A Short History of Modern Asia Since World War II. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 978-0-85773-029-9.
- Vierra, Kimberly; Vierra, Brian (2011). Vietnam Business Guide: Getting Started in Tomorrow's Market Today. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-17881-2.
- Vo, Nghia M. (2011). Saigon: A History. McFarland & Company. ISBN 978-0-7864-8634-2.
- Khoo, Nicholas (2011). Collateral Damage: Sino-Soviet Rivalry and the Termination of the Sino-Vietnamese Alliance. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-15078-1.
- Cooke, Nola; Li, Tana; Anderson, James (2011). The Tongking Gulf Through History. University of Pennsylvania Press, Incorporated. ISBN 978-0-8122-4336-9.
- Zwartjes, Otto (2011). Portuguese Missionary Grammars in Asia, Africa and Brazil, 1550–1800. John Benjamins Publishing Company. ISBN 978-90-272-4608-0.
- Frankum, Ronald B. Jr. (2011). Historical Dictionary of the War in Vietnam. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-7956-0.
- Tucker, Spencer C. (2011). The Encyclopedia of the Vietnam War: A Political, Social, and Military History, 2nd Edition [4 volumes]: A Political, Social, and Military History. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-85109-961-0.
- Tonnesson, Stein (2011). Vietnam 1946: How the War Began. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-26993-4.
- Kỳ Phương, Trần; Lockhart, Bruce M. (2011). The Cham of Vietnam: History, Society and Art. NUS Press. ISBN 978-9971-69-459-3.
- Thaker, Aruna; Barton, Arlene (2012). Multicultural Handbook of Food, Nutrition and Dietetics. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-35046-1.
- Keith, Charles (2012). Catholic Vietnam: A Church from Empire to Nation. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-95382-6.
- Olson, Gregory A. (2012). Mansfield and Vietnam: A Study in Rhetorical Adaptation. MSU Press. ISBN 978-0-87013-941-3.
- Waite, James (2012). The End of the First Indochina War: A Global History. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-27334-6.
- Vo, Nghia M. (2012). Legends of Vietnam: An Analysis and Retelling of 88 Tales. McFarland & Company. ISBN 978-0-7864-9060-8.
- Muehlenbeck, Philip Emil; Muehlenbeck, Philip (2012). Religion and the Cold War: A Global Perspective. Vanderbilt University Press. ISBN 978-0-8265-1852-1.
- Rabett, Ryan J. (2012). Human Adaptation in the Asian Palaeolithic: Hominin Dispersal and Behaviour During the Late Quaternary. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-01829-7.
- Li, Xiaobing (2012). China at War: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-59884-415-3.
- Gilbert, Adrian (2013). Encyclopedia of Warfare: From the Earliest Times to the Present Day. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-135-95697-4.
- Chico, Beverly (2013). Hats and Headwear around the World: A Cultural Encyclopedia: A Cultural Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-61069-063-8.
- Boobbyer, Claire; Spooner, Andrew (2013). Vietnam, Cambodia & Laos Footprint Handbook. Footprint Travel Guides. ISBN 978-1-907263-64-4.
- Fröhlich, Holger L.; Schreinemachers, Pepijn; Stahr, Karl; Clemens, Gerhard (2013). Sustainable Land Use and Rural Development in Southeast Asia: Innovations and Policies for Mountainous Areas. Springer Science + Business Media. ISBN 978-3-642-33377-4.
- Willbanks, James H. (2013). Vietnam War Almanac: An In-Depth Guide to the Most Controversial Conflict in American History. Skyhorse Publishing. ISBN 978-1-62636-528-5.
- Choy, Lee Khoon (2013). Golden Dragon And Purple Phoenix: The Chinese And Their Multi-ethnic Descendants In Southeast Asia. World Scientific. ISBN 978-981-4518-49-9.
- van Dijk, Ruud; Gray, William Glenn; Savranskaya, Svetlana; Suri, Jeremi; et al. (2013). Encyclopedia of the Cold War. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-92311-2.
- Cosslett, Tuyet L.; Cosslett, Patrick D. (2013). Water Resources and Food Security in the Vietnam Mekong Delta. Springer Science + Business Media. ISBN 978-3-319-02198-0.
- Lim, David (2014). Economic Growth and Employment in Vietnam. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-317-81859-5.
- Gunn, Geoffrey C. (2014). Rice Wars in Colonial Vietnam: The Great Famine and the Viet Minh Road to Power. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 978-1-4422-2303-5.
- Anderson, James A.; Whitmore, John K. (2014). China's Encounters on the South and Southwest: Reforging the Fiery Frontier Over Two Millennia. Brill Publishers. ISBN 978-90-04-28248-3.
- de Mora, Javier Calvo; Wood, Keith (2014). Practical Knowledge in Teacher Education: Approaches to teacher internship programmes. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-317-80333-1.
- Eggleston, Michael A. (2014). Exiting Vietnam: The Era of Vietnamization and American Withdrawal Revealed in First-Person Accounts. McFarland Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7864-7772-2.
- Dennell, Robin; Porr, Martin (2014). Southern Asia, Australia, and the Search for Human Origins. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-72913-1.
- Hong Lien, Vu; Sharrock, Peter (2014). Descending Dragon, Rising Tiger: A History of Vietnam. Reaktion Books. ISBN 978-1-78023-388-8.
- Gibbons, William Conrad (2014). The U.S. Government and the Vietnam War: Executive and Legislative Roles and Relationships, Part III: 1965–1966. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-6153-8.
- Ooi, Keat Gin; Anh Tuan, Hoang (2015). Early Modern Southeast Asia, 1350–1800. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-55919-1.
- Oxenham, Marc; Buckley, Hallie (2015). The Routledge Handbook of Bioarchaeology in Southeast Asia and the Pacific Islands. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-53401-3.
- Duy Hinh, Nguyen; Dinh Tho, Tran (2015). The South Vietnamese Society. Normanby Press. ISBN 978-1-78625-513-6.
- Yao, Alice (2016). The Ancient Highlands of Southwest China: From the Bronze Age to the Han Empire. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-936734-4.
- Howe, Brendan M. (2016). Post-Conflict Development in East Asia. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-07740-4.
- Thanh Hai, Do (2016). Vietnam and the South China Sea: Politics, Security and Legality. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-317-39820-2.
- Phuong Linh, Huynh Thi (2016). State-Society Interaction in Vietnam. LIT Verlag Münster. ISBN 978-3-643-90719-6.
- Ozolinš, Janis Talivaldis (2016). Religion and Culture in Dialogue: East and West Perspectives. Springer Publishing. ISBN 978-3-319-25724-2.
- Howard, Michael C. (2016). Textiles and Clothing of Việt Nam: A History. McFarland & Company. ISBN 978-1-4766-2440-2.
- Kiernan, Ben (2017). Việt Nam: A History from Earliest Times to the Present. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-516076-5.
- DK (2017). The Vietnam War: The Definitive Illustrated History. Dorling Kindersley Limited. ISBN 978-0-241-30868-4.
- Travel, DK (2017). DK Eyewitness Travel Guide Vietnam and Angkor Wat. Dorling Kindersley Limited. ISBN 978-0-241-30136-4.
- Moïse, Edwin E. (2017). Land Reform in China and North Vietnam: Consolidating the Revolution at the Village Level. University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0-8078-7445-5.
- Hinchey, Jane (2017). Vietnam: Discover the Country, Culture and People. Redback Publishing. ISBN 978-1-925630-02-2.
- Kort, Michael (2017). The Vietnam War Re-Examined. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-04640-5.
- Trieu Dan, Nguyen (2017). A Vietnamese Family Chronicle: Twelve Generations on the Banks of the Hat River. McFarland Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7864-8779-0.
- Tran, Tri C.; Le, Tram (2017). Vietnamese Stories for Language Learners: Traditional Folktales in Vietnamese and English Text (MP3 Downloadable Audio Included). Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4629-1956-7.
- Tran, Anh Q. (2017). Gods, Heroes, and Ancestors: An Interreligious Encounter in Eighteenth-Century Vietnam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-067760-2. Archived from the original on 26 September 2019. Retrieved 5 October 2020.
- Cosslett, Tuyet L.; Cosslett, Patrick D. (2017). Sustainable Development of Rice and Water Resources in Mainland Southeast Asia and Mekong River Basin. Springer Publishing. ISBN 978-981-10-5613-0.
- Zhu, Ying; Ren, Shuang; Collins, Ngan; Warner, Malcolm (2017). Business Leaders and Leadership in Asia. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-317-56749-3.
- Dohrenwend, Bruce P.; Turse, Nick; Wall, Melanie M.; Yager, Thomas J. (2018). Surviving Vietnam: Psychological Consequences of the War for US Veterans. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-090444-9.
- Lamport, Mark A. (2018). Encyclopedia of Christianity in the Global South. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 978-1-4422-7157-9.
- Dinh Tham, Nguyen (2018). Studies on Vietnamese Language and Literature: A Preliminary Bibliography. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-1-5017-1882-3.
- Dayley, Robert (2018). Southeast Asia in the New International Era. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-429-97424-3.
- Chen, Steven (2018). The Design Imperative: The Art and Science of Design Management. Springer Publishing. ISBN 978-3-319-78568-4.
- Wilcox, Wynn, ed. (2010). Vietnam and the West: New Approaches. Ithaca, NY: SEAP Publications, Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-87727-782-8.
Legislation and government source
- "Chapter Five: Fundamental Rights and Duties of the Citizen". Constitution of Vietnam. 1992. Archived from the original on 13 October 2018 – via Ministry of Justice (Vietnam).
- "Annexe au procès-verbal de la séance du 1er octobre 1997". French Senate (in French). 1997. Archived from the original on 31 August 2013. Retrieved 25 July 2013.
- "Penal Code (No. 15/1999/QH10)". Ministry of Justice. Vietnam. 1999. Archived from the original on 2 October 2013.
- "Law on Publication (No. 30/2004/QH11)". Ministry of Justice. Vietnam. 2004. Archived from the original on 18 December 2011.
- "Ordinance of Beliefs and Religion [No. 21]". Ministry of Justice. Vietnam. 2004. Archived from the original on 14 October 2018.
- "Report on International Religious Freedom: Vietnam". US Department of State. 2019. Archived from the original on 26 September 2020. Retrieved 12 October 2020.
- "International Religious Freedom Report 2006". United States Department of State. 2005. Archived from the original on 11 April 2022. Retrieved 21 May 2019.
- "U.S. Humanitarian Mine Action Programs: Asia". United States Department of State. 2006. Archived from the original on 18 April 2020. Retrieved 21 May 2019.
- Trung Chien, Tran Thi (2006). "Vietnam Health Report" (PDF). Ministry of Health. Vietnam. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 October 2018.
- Nielsen, Chantal Pohl (2007). "Vietnam's Rice Policy: Recent Reforms and Future Opportunities" (PDF). Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development. Vietnam. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 October 2018.
- "Vietnamese general company of rubber-prospect of being a foremost Vietnamese agriculture group". AgroViet Newsletter. 2007. Archived from the original on 21 February 2008.
- "Vietnam Foreign Policy". Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Vietnam. 2007. Archived from the original on 18 January 2009. Retrieved 25 February 2009.
- "MEDIA RELEASE: The 2009 Population and Housing Census". General Statistics Office of Vietnam. 2009. Archived from the original on 13 November 2010.
- Mạnh Cường, Nguyễn; Ngọc Lin, Nguyễn (2010). "Giới thiệu Quốc hoa của một số nước và việc lựa chọn Quốc hoa của Việt Nam" [Introducing the national flower of some countries and the selection of national flower of Vietnam]. National Archives of Vietnam (in Vietnamese). Archived from the original on 12 April 2019.
- "Transport, Postal Services and Telecommunications". General Statistics Office of Vietnam. 2010. Archived from the original on 6 October 2018.
- Fong-Sam, Yolanda (2010). "The Mineral Industry of Vietnam" (PDF). 2010 Minerals Yearbook. United States Geological Survey. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 March 2013.
- Taylor, Claire; Rutherford, Tom (2011). "Military Balance in Southeast Asia [Research Paper 11/79]" (PDF). House of Commons Library. Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 November 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- "Monthly statistical information – Social and economic situation, 8 months of 2011 [Traffic accidents]". General Statistics Office of Vietnam. 2011. Archived from the original on 6 October 2018.
- Green, Michael (2012). "Foreign policy and diplomatic representation". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- "Bộ Luật Lao Động (No. 10/2012/QH13)". Ministry of Justice (in Vietnamese). Vietnam. 2012. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018.
- "Key ingredients: Vietnamese". Special Broadcasting Service. Australia. 2013. Archived from the original on 15 October 2018.
- "Vietnam [The Full Picture of Vietnam]" (PDF). Ministry of Citizenship and Immigration. Canada. 2013. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 October 2018.
- "General Information about Countries and Regions [List of countries which maintains diplomatic relations with the Socialist Republic of Vietnam (as April 2010)]". Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Vietnam. 2013. Archived from the original on 16 November 2017. Retrieved 15 August 2008.
- "Nha Trang city: Vietnamese cultural cuisine festival 2014 opens". Vietnam Culture Information Network. 2014. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- "Conquering the Fansipan". Vietnam National Administration of Tourism. 2014. Archived from the original on 2 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- "Continue moving forward with intensive international integration". Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Vietnam. 2014. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- "Số liệu thống kê – Danh sách". General Statistics Office of Vietnam (in Vietnamese). 2015. Archived from the original on 9 June 2016. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- "Minister Schultz signs agreement on water treatment project in Vietnam". Government of the Netherlands. 2016. Archived from the original on 16 January 2019. Retrieved 16 January 2019.
- Garamone, Jim (2016). "Lifting Embargo Allows Closer U.S., Vietnam Cooperation, Obama, Carter Say". United States Department of Defense. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- "UK aid helps clear lethal landmines in war-torn countries following generosity of British public". Government of the United Kingdom. 2017. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- "Speech by Cora van Nieuwenhuizen, Minister of Infrastructure and Water Management, at the celebration of 45 years of bilateral relations with Vietnam, Hilton Hotel The Hague, 26 March 2018". Government of the Netherlands. 2018. Archived from the original on 16 January 2019. Retrieved 16 January 2019.
- "Russia and Vietnam draft International Military Activity Plan 2020". Ministry of Defence. Russia. 2018. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- "UK trade with Vietnam – looking to the next 45 years". Government of the United Kingdom. 2018. Archived from the original on 26 October 2018. Retrieved 26 October 2018.
- Anh, Van (2018). "Vietnam and Netherlands reaffirm economic relations". Vietnam Investment Review. Archived from the original on 16 January 2019.
- "Contract signed for feasibility study for Long Thanh airport". Vietnam Investment Review. 2018. Archived from the original on 7 October 2018.
- "Vietnam and International Organizations". Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Vietnam. 2018. Archived from the original on 26 July 2008. Retrieved 15 August 2008.
- "International visitors to Viet Nam in December and 12 months of 2017". Vietnam National Administration of Tourism. 2018. Archived from the original on 8 January 2019.
- "Overview on Vietnam geography". Government of Vietnam. Archived from the original on 30 November 2018. Retrieved 30 November 2018.
- "About Vietnam (Political System)". Government of Vietnam. Archived from the original on 21 September 2013. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- "An Overview of Spatial Policy in Asian and European Countries". Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism. Japan. Archived from the original on 18 April 2018. Retrieved 8 April 2018.
- "Environmental Remediation [Agent Orange]". United States Agency for International Development. 3 December 2018. Archived from the original on 20 October 2018. Retrieved 20 October 2018.
- "Tài Liệu Cơ Bản Nước Cộng Hoà Hồi Giáo Pa-kít-xtan". Ministry of Foreign Affairs (in Vietnamese). Vietnam. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- "Báo cáo Hiện trạng môi trường quốc gia 2005 Chuyên đề Đa dạng sinh học". Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (in Vietnamese). Vietnam. Archived from the original on 23 February 2009.
- General Statistics Office of Vietnam (2019). "Completed Results of the 2019 Viet Nam Population and Housing Census" (PDF). Statistical Publishing House (Vietnam). ISBN 978-604-75-1532-5. Archived from the original on 10 January 2021. Retrieved 26 December 2020.
Academic publications
- Crozier, Brian (1955). "The Diem Regime in Southern Vietnam". Far Eastern Survey. 24 (4): 49–56. doi:10.2307/3023970. JSTOR 3023970.
- Gittinger, J. Price (1959). "Communist Land Policy in North Viet Nam". Far Eastern Survey. 28 (8): 113–126. doi:10.2307/3024603. JSTOR 3024603.
- Trần, Văn Khê (1972). "Means of Preservation and Diffusion of Traditional Music in Vietnam". Asian Music. 3 (1): 40–44. doi:10.2307/834104. JSTOR 834104.
- Riehl, Herbert; Augstein, Ernst (1973). "Surface interaction calculations over the Gulf of Tonkin". Tellus. 25 (5): 424–434. Bibcode:1973Tell...25..424R. doi:10.3402/tellusa.v25i5.9694.
- Norman, Jerry; Mei, Tsu-lin (1976). "The Austroasiatics in Ancient South China: Some Lexical Evidence". Monumenta Serica. 32: 274–301. doi:10.1080/02549948.1976.11731121.
- Fraser, SE (1980). "Vietnam's first census". POPLINE. 8 (8). Intercom: 326–331. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Higham, C.F.W. (1984). "Prehistoric Rice Cultivation in Southeast Asia". Scientific American. 250 (4): 138–149. Bibcode:1984SciAm.250d.138H. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0484-138. JSTOR 24969352.
- Nguyen, Lan Cuong (1985). "Two early Hoabinhian crania from Thanh Hoa Province, Vietnam". Zeitschrift für Morphologie und Anthropologie. 77 (1): 11–17. doi:10.1127/zma/77/1987/11. JSTOR 25757211. PMID 3564631.
- Trần, Văn Khê (1985). "Chinese Music and Musical Traditions of Eastern Asia". The World of Music, Verlag für Wissenschaft und Bildung. 27 (1): 78–90. JSTOR 43562680.
- Gough, Kathleen (1986). "The Hoa in Vietnam". Contemporary Marxism, Social Justice/Global Options (12/13): 81–91. JSTOR 29765847.
- Kimura, Tetsusaburo (1986). "Vietnam—Ten Years of Economic Struggle". Asian Survey. 26 (10): 1039–1055. doi:10.2307/2644255. JSTOR 2644255.
- Quach Langlet, Tâm (1991). "Charles Fourniau: Annam-Tonkin 1885–1896. Lettrés et paysans vietnamiens face à la conquête coloniale. Travaux du Centre d'Histoire et Civilisations de la péninsule Indochinoise". Bulletin de l'École Française d'Extrême-Orient (in French). 78. Archived from the original on 3 March 2019. Retrieved 16 October 2018 – via Persée.
- Huu Chiem, Nguyen (1993). "Geo-Pedological Study of the Mekong Delta" (PDF). Southeast Asian Studies. 31 (2). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018 – via Kyoto University.
- Thayer, Carlyle A. (1994). "Sino-Vietnamese Relations: The Interplay of Ideology and National Interest". Asian Survey. 34 (6): 513–528. doi:10.2307/2645338. JSTOR 2645338.
- Greenfield, Gerard (1994). "The Development of Capitalism in Vietnam". Socialist Register. Archived from the original on 30 September 2018. Retrieved 8 November 2018.
- Hirschman, Charles; Preston, Samuel; Manh Loi, Vu (1995). "Vietnamese Casualties During the American War: A New Estimate". Population and Development Review. 21 (4): 783–812. doi:10.2307/2137774. JSTOR 2137774.
- Goodkind, Daniel (1995). "Rising Gender Inequality in Vietnam Since Reunification". Pacific Affairs. 68 (3): 342–359. doi:10.2307/2761129. JSTOR 2761129.
- Amer, Ramses (1996). "Vietnam's Policies and the Ethnic Chinese since 1975". Sojourn: Journal of Social Issues in Southeast Asia. 11 (1): 76–104. doi:10.1355/SJ11-1D. JSTOR 41056928.
- Momoki, Shiro (1996). "A Short Introduction to Champa Studies" (PDF). Kyoto University Research Information Repository. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 October 2018 – via CORE.
- Meacham, William (1996). "Defining the Hundred Yue". Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association. 15: 93–100. doi:10.7152/bippa.v15i0.11537 (inactive 31 March 2024).
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of March 2024 (link) - Jacques, Roland (1998). "Le Portugal et la romanisation de la langue vietnamienne. Faut- il réécrire l'histoire ?". Outre-Mers. Revue d'Histoire (in French). 318. Archived from the original on 12 December 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018 – via Persée.
- Zinoman, Peter (2000). "Colonial Prisons and Anti-Colonial Resistance in French Indochina: The Thai Nguyen Rebellion, 1917". Modern Asian Studies. 34 (1): 57–98. doi:10.1017/S0026749X00003590. JSTOR 313112. S2CID 145191678.
- Xuan Dinh, Quan (2000). "The Political Economy of Vietnam's Transformation Process". Contemporary Southeast Asia. 22 (2): 360–388. doi:10.1355/CS22-2G. JSTOR 25798497.
- Moise, Edwin E. (1988). "Nationalism and Communism in Vietnam". Journal of Third World Studies. 5 (2). University Press of Florida: 6–22. JSTOR 45193059.
- Matsumura, Hirofumi; Lan Cuong, Nguyen; Kim Thuy, Nguyen; Anezaki, Tomoko (2001). "Dental Morphology of the Early Hoabinian, the Neolithic Da But and the Metal Age Dong Son Civilized Peoples in Vietnam". Zeitschrift für Morphologie und Anthropologie. 83 (1): 59–73. doi:10.1127/zma/83/2001/59. JSTOR 25757578. PMID 11372468.
- Emmers, Ralf (2005). "Regional Hegemonies and the Exercise of Power in Southeast Asia: A Study of Indonesia and Vietnam". Asian Survey. 45 (4). University of California Press: 645–665. doi:10.1525/as.2005.45.4.645. JSTOR 10.1525/as.2005.45.4.645.
- Endres, Kirsten W. (2001). "Local Dynamics of Renegotiating Ritual Space in Northern Vietnam: The Case of the "Dinh"". Journal of Social Issues in Southeast Asia. 16 (1): 70–101. doi:10.1355/sj16-1c. JSTOR 41057051. PMID 19195125.
- McLeod, Mark W.; Thi Dieu, Nguyen (2001). Culture and Customs of Vietnam. Culture and Customs of Asia. Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-30485-9. ISSN 1097-0738.
- Gallup, John Luke (2002). "The wage labor market and inequality in Viet Nam in the 1990s". Policy Research Working Paper Series, World Bank. Policy Research Working Papers. doi:10.1596/1813-9450-2896. hdl:10986/19272. S2CID 18598221. Archived from the original on 8 May 2019. Retrieved 21 March 2015 – via Research Papers in Economics.
- Wai-ming, Ng (2002). "The Impact of Japanese Comics and Animation in Asia" (PDF). Journal of Japanese Trade & Industry. Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018 – via Chinese University of Hong Kong.
- Freeman, Nick J. (2002). "United States's economic sanctions against Vietnam: International business and development repercussions". The Columbia Journal of World Business. 28 (2): 12–22. doi:10.1016/0022-5428(93)90038-Q.
- Wilkey, Robert Neil (2002). "Vietnam's Antitrust Legislation and Subscription to E-ASEAN: An End to the Bamboo Firewall Over Internet Regulation". The John Marshall Journal of Information Technology and Privacy Law. 20 (4). Archived from the original on 19 November 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Wagstaff, Adam; van Doorslaer, Eddy; Watanabe, Naoko (2003). "On decomposing the causes of health sector inequalities with an application to malnutrition inequalities in Vietnam" (PDF). Journal of Econometrics. 112 (1): 207–223. doi:10.1016/S0304-4076(02)00161-6. hdl:10986/19426. S2CID 122165846. Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 September 2015. Retrieved 2 January 2022.
- Van Tho, Tran (2003). "Economic development in Vietnam during the second half of the 20th century: How to avoid the danger of lagging behind" (PDF). The Vietnamese Economy: Awakening the Dorming Dragon (2). Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 October 2018 – via Waseda University.
- Miguel, Edward; Roland, Gérard (2005). "The Long Run Impact of Bombing Vietnam" (PDF). University of California, Berkeley. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Manyin, Mark E. (2005). "U.S. Assistance to Vietnam" (PDF). CRS Report for Congress. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 October 2018 – via Federation of American Scientists.
- Van Nam, Nguyen; de Vries, Peter J.; Van Toi, Le; Nagelkerke, Nico (2005). "Malaria control in Vietnam: the Binh Thuan experience". Tropical Medicine & International Health. 10 (4): 357–365. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3156.2005.01387.x. PMID 15807800. S2CID 22083432.
- Berg, M; Stengel, C; Pham, TK; Pham, HV; et al. (2007). "Magnitude of arsenic pollution in the Mekong and Red River Deltas—Cambodia and Vietnam". Science of the Total Environment. 372 (2–3): 413–25. Bibcode:2007ScTEn.372..413B. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2006.09.010. PMID 17081593.
- Zuckerman, Phil (2007). "Atheism: Contemporary Rates and Patterns" (PDF). Cambridge Companion to Atheism. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 June 2009 – via Pitzer College.
- Odell, Andrew L.; Castillo, Marlene F. (2008). "Vietnam in a Nutshell: An Historical, Political and Commercial Overview" (PDF). NYBSA International Law Practicum. 21 (2). Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 October 2018 – via Duane Morris.
- Matsumura, Hirofumi; Yoneda, Minoru; Yukio, Dodo; Oxenham, Marc; et al. (2008). "Terminal Pleistocene human skeleton from Hang Cho Cave, northern Vietnam: implications for the biological affinities of Hoabinhian people". Anthropological Science. 116 (3): 201–217. doi:10.1537/ase.070416. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 September 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018 – via J-STAGE.
- Van De, Nguyen; Douglas, Ian; McMorrow, Julia; Lindley, Sarah; et al. (2008). "Erosion and Nutrient Loss on Sloping Land under Intense Cultivation in Southern Vietnam". Geographical Research. 46 (1): 4–16. Bibcode:2008GeoRs..46....4V. doi:10.1111/j.1745-5871.2007.00487.x. S2CID 128887874. Archived from the original on 18 April 2021. Retrieved 11 February 2021.
- Nasuchon, Nopparat (2008). "Coastal Management and Community Management in Malaysia, Vietnam, Cambodia and Thailand, with a case study of Thai Fisheries Management" (PDF). United Nations-Nippon Foundation Fellow Research Presentation. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018 – via United Nations.
- Obermeyer, Ziad; Murray, Christopher J L; Gakidou, Emmanuela (2008). "Fifty years of violent war deaths from Vietnam to Bosnia: analysis of data from the world health survey programme [Table 3]". BMJ. 336 (7659): 1482–6. doi:10.1136/bmj.a137. PMC 2440905. PMID 18566045.
- Hoang Vuong, Quan; Dung Tran, Tri (2009). "The Cultural Dimensions of the Vietnamese Private Entrepreneurship". The IUP Journal of Entrepreneurship Development. SSRN 1442384 – via Social Science Research Network.
- Lieberman, Samuel S.; Wagstaff, Adam (2009). Health financing and delivery in Vietnam. World Bank. doi:10.1596/978-0-8213-7782-6. ISBN 978-0-8213-7782-6.
- Cuong Le, Duc; Kubo, Tatsuhiko; Fujino, Yoshihisa; Minh Pham, Truong; et al. (2010). "Health Care System in Vietnam: Current Situation and Challenges". Asian Pacific Journal of Disease Management. 4 (2). Archived from the original on 5 October 2018 – via J-STAGE.
- Cira, Dean; Dastur, Arish; Kilroy, Austin; Lozano, Nancy; et al. (2011). Vietnam Urbanization Review (Report). World Bank. doi:10.13140/2.1.5100.6249 – via ResearchGate.
- Buiter, Willem; Rahbari, Ebrahim (2011). "Global growth generators: Moving beyond emerging markets and BRICs". Centre for Economic Policy Research. Archived from the original on 17 October 2018.
- Pincus, Jonathan (2015). "Why Doesn't Vietnam Grow Faster?: State Fragmentation and the Limits of Vent for Surplus Growth" (PDF). Southeast Asian Economies. 32 (1): 26. doi:10.1355/ae32-1c. S2CID 154680467. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 October 2018 – via Flanders Investment and Trade.
- Thomas, Martin (2012). Rubber, coolies and communists: In Violence and Colonial Order: Police, Workers and Protest in the European Colonial Empires, 1918–1940 (Critical Perspectives on Empire from Part II – Colonial case studies: French, British and Belgian). pp. 141–176. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139045643.009. ISBN 978-1-139-04564-3.
- Hong Phuong, Nguyen (2012). "Seismic Hazard Studies in Vietnam" (PDF). GEM Semi-Annual Meeting – Academia Sinica. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 October 2018 – via Taiwan Earthquake Research Center.
- McCaig, Brian; Pavcnik, Nina (2013). "Moving out of agriculture: structural change in Vietnam" (PDF). Dartmouth College. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Chapman, Bruce; Liu, Amy Y.C. (2013). "Repayment Burdens of Student Loans for Vietnamese Higher Education". Crawford School Research Paper. SSRN 2213076 – via Social Science Research Network.
- Huu Duc, Nguyen; Mai Hoa, Duong Thi; Thien Huong, Nguyen; Ngoc Bao, Nguyen (2013). "On Various Essential Data Related to Status Quo of Motorcycles in Vietnam". Journal of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies. 10. Archived from the original on 6 October 2018 – via J-STAGE.
- Cox, Anne; Le, Viet (2014). "Governmental influences on the evolution of agricultural cooperatives in Vietnam: an institutional perspective with case studies". Asia Pacific Business Review. 20 (3): 401–418. doi:10.1080/13602381.2014.931045. S2CID 44972080. Archived from the original on 18 April 2023. Retrieved 18 April 2023 – via University of Wollongong Research Online.
- Banout, Jan; Urban, Ondrej; Musil, Vojtech; Szakova, Jirina; et al. (2014). "Agent Orange Footprint Still Visible in Rural Areas of Central Vietnam". Journal of Environmental and Public Health. 2014: 1–10. doi:10.1155/2014/528965. PMC 3930020. PMID 24639878.
- Różycka-Tran, Joanna; Anh Tran, Quan (2014). "Self-regulation techniques in Vietnamese Zen Truc Lam Monastery" (PDF). Gdańskie Studia Azji Wschodniej. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 October 2018.
- Crook, Joe (2014). "Traveling Through Space: A Look at the Evolution of Transportation in Vietnam and its Implications". Independent Study Project (ISP) Collection. Archived from the original on 6 October 2018 – via SIT Digital Collections.
- Grigoreva, Nina V. (2014). "Legendary Ancestors, National Identity, and the Socialization of Children in Contemporary Vietnam" (PDF). Centre for Asian and African Studies. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 October 2018.
- Merola, R. B.; Hien, T. T.; Quyen, D. T. T.; Vengosh, A. (2014). "Arsenic exposure to drinking water in the Mekong Delta". Science of the Total Environment. 511: 544–552. Bibcode:2015ScTEn.511..544M. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.12.091. PMID 25585157.
- Ha Trân, Thi Thai (2014). "Education financing in Vietnam". Revue Internationale d'Éducation de Sèvres. doi:10.4000/ries.3895. S2CID 129299111. Archived from the original on 18 October 2018. Retrieved 18 October 2018 – via OpenEdition Journals.
- Kim Phuong, Tran (2014). "Vietnam: Highland bauxite Projects and initial economic effects". Vietnam Institute of Geosciences and Mineral Resources. Archived from the original on 4 October 2018 – via Metal Bulletin.
- Pham, Alice (2015). "The Vietnam Telecommunications Sector: Good Practices in Regulatory Reform in Relation to Competition Policy & Law Issues" (PDF). CUTS International. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 February 2019.
- Tung Hieu, Ly (2015). "Confucian Influences on Vietnamese Culture". Vietnam Social Sciences. 5 (169). Archived from the original on 15 October 2018 – via Vietnam Journals Online.
- Sohr, Alexander; Brockfeld, Elmar; Sauerländer, Anke; Melde, Eric (2016). "Traffic Information System for Hanoi". Procedia Engineering. 142: 221–228. doi:10.1016/j.proeng.2016.02.035.
- BirdLife International (2016). "Lophura edwardsi". The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T45354985A95145107.en.
- Ngo, Lan A. (2016). Nguyễn–Catholic History (1770s–1890s) and the Gestation of Vietnamese Catholic National Identity (PDF) (PhD dissertation). Georgetown University. hdl:10822/1040724. Archived from the original on 24 March 2022. Retrieved 14 March 2023 – via DigitalGeorgetown.
- Viet Trung, Le; Quoc Viet, Tran; Van Chat, Pham (2016). "An Overview of Vietnam's Oil and Gas Industry" (PDF). Petroleum Economics & Management. 10. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 October 2018 – via Vietnam Petroleum Institute.
- Trinh, Q. M.; Nguyen, H. L.; Do, T. N.; Nguyen, V. N.; et al. (2016). "Tuberculosis and HIV co-infection in Vietnam". International Journal of Infectious Diseases. 46 (2): 12–22. doi:10.1016/0022-5428(93)90038-Q. PMID 27044521.
- Nhu Nguyen, Quynh Thi (2016). "The Vietnamese Values System: A Blend of Oriental, Western and Socialist Values" (PDF). International Education Studies. 9 (12). Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 October 2018 – via Institute of Education Sciences.
- Feinberg, Richard E. (2016). "Principles and Power". Problems of Post-Communism. 63 (2): 75–83. doi:10.1080/10758216.2015.1083377. S2CID 156148830 – via Taylor & Francis.
- Linh Le, Thi Phuong; Anh Trinh, Tu (2016). "Encouraging Public Transport Use to Reduce Traffic Congestion and Air Pollutant: A Case Study of Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam". Procedia Engineering. 142: 236–243. doi:10.1016/j.proeng.2016.02.037.
- Anh Dinh, Thuy (2016). The Causes and Effects of Korean Pop Culture on Vietnamese Consumer Behavior (PDF) (MA thesis). Thammasat University. Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 March 2023. Retrieved 14 March 2023.
- Minh Hoang, Truong; van Lap, Nguyen; Kim Oanh, Ta Thi; Jiro, Takemura (2016). "The influence of delta formation mechanism on geotechnical property sequence of the late Pleistocene–Holocene sediments in the Mekong River Delta". Heliyon. 2 (11): e00165. Bibcode:2016Heliy...200165H. doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2016.e00165. PMC 5114594. PMID 27882357.
- Shaofei, YE; Guoqing, Zhang (2016). "The relationship between Nanyue and Annam in the ancient historical records of China and Vietnam". Honghe Prefecture Center for Vietnamese Studies, Honghe University. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018 – via CNKI Journal Translation Project.
- Van Hoang, Chung (2017). "Evangelizing Post-Đổi Mới Vietnam: The Rise of Protestantism and the State's Response" (PDF). Perspective (34). ISEAS–Yusof Ishak Institute. ISSN 2335-6677. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 October 2018.
- H. Dang, Hai-Anh; Glewwe, Paul W. (2017). "Well Begun, but Aiming Higher: A Review of Vietnam's Education Trends in the Past 20 Years and Emerging Challenges" (PDF). The Journal of Development Studies. 54 (7): 1171–1195. doi:10.1080/00220388.2017.1380797. PMC 6010051. PMID 29937575. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 October 2018 – via Research on Improving Systems of Education.
- Overland, Indra (2017). "Impact of Climate Change on ASEAN International Affairs: Risk and Opportunity Multiplier". Norwegian Institute of International Affairs (NUPI) and Myanmar Institute of International and Strategic Studies (MISIS). ISSN 1894-650X – via ResearchGate.
- Baccini, Leonardo; Impullitti, Giammario; Malesky, Edmund J. (2017). "Globalization and State Capitalism: Assessing Vietnam's Accession to the WTO". CESifo Working Paper Series. SSRN 3036319 – via Social Science Research Network.
- Hong Truong, Son; Ye, Qinghua; Stive, Marcel J. F. (2017). "Estuarine Mangrove Squeeze in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam". Journal of Coastal Research. 33 (4): 747–763. doi:10.2112/JCOASTRES-D-16-00087.1. S2CID 131892649 – via BioOne.
- Nang Chung, Trinh; Giang Hai, Nguyen (2017). "Dong Son Culture in First Ten Centuries AD". Institute of Archaeology, Vietnam Academy of Social Sciences. Archived from the original on 18 October 2018.
- Dang Vu, Hoai Nam; Nielsen, Martin Reinhardt (2018). "Understanding utilitarian and hedonic values determining the demand for rhino horn in Vietnam". Human Dimensions of Wildlife. 23 (5): 417–432. Bibcode:2018HDW....23..417D. doi:10.1080/10871209.2018.1449038. S2CID 46933047 – via Taylor & Francis.
- Trương, Ngân (2018). "Solid Waste Management in Vietnam" (PDF). Degree Programme in Environmental Engineering. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 January 2019.
- Truong, Nhu; Vo, Dang H.; Nguyen, Dzung (2018). Mekong State of Land (PDF). University of Bern. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Quang Vinh, Bui. "Vietnam 2035: Toward Prosperity, Creativity, Equity, and Democracy" (PDF). George Washington University. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 October 2018.
- Cornell University (25 September 2023). "Rice in Vietnamese Culture and Economy". Mario Einaudi Center for International Studies – Southeast Asia Program. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Van Van, Hoang. "The Current Situation and Issues of the Teaching of English in Vietnam" (PDF). 立命館言語文化研究. 22 (1). Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 October 2018.
News and magazines
- The Harvard Crimson (1972). "Med School Professor Praises North Vietnam's Medical Care". The Harvard Crimson. Archived from the original on 19 November 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- The New York Times (3 July 1976). "2 Parts of Vietnam Officially Reunited; Leadership Chosen". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 16 February 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Spokesman-Review (1977). "Vietnam outlines collectivization goals". The Spokesman-Review. Archived from the original on 9 March 2021. Retrieved 9 May 2020.
- Swanson, Susan (1978). "Vietnamese Celebrate 'Women's Day' in Old and New Ways". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Cockburn, Patrick (1994). "US finally ends Vietnam embargo". The Independent. Archived from the original on 20 February 2020. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Shenon, Philip (23 April 1995). "20 Years After Victory, Vietnamese Communists Ponder How to Celebrate". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 29 June 2019. Retrieved 20 February 2017.
- Mitchell, Alison (12 July 1995). "Opening to Vietnam: The Overview; U.S. Grants Vietnam Full Ties; Time for Healing, Clinton Says". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- BBC News (1997). "Vietnam: changing of the guard". BBC News. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- BBC News (2004). "Vietnam's new-look economy". BBC News. Archived from the original on 26 October 2014. Retrieved 3 September 2010.
- BBC News (2005). "The legacy of Agent Orange". BBC News. Archived from the original on 19 July 2018. Retrieved 19 July 2018.
- DigInfo (2007). "TOSY TOPIO – Table Tennis Playing Robot". DigInfo. Archived from the original on 21 May 2009.
- China Daily (2008). "Vietnam win first int'l title". China Daily. Sina English. Archived from the original on 8 January 2019. Retrieved 7 January 2019.
- The Economist (2008). "A bit of everything [Vietnam's quest for role models]". The Economist. Archived from the original on 21 October 2012. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Vietnam+ (2008). "High speed railway engineers to be trained in Japan". Vietnam+. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Khanh, Vu (2008). "Cultural values of traditional Vietnamese wedding". Sài Gòn Giải Phóng. Archived from the original on 30 November 2018. Retrieved 30 November 2018.
- BBC News (2009). "Vietnam lawyer charged with subversion". BBC News. Archived from the original on 18 December 2019. Retrieved 8 January 2019.
- Mydans, Seth (24 December 2009). "Vietnam Charges Lawyer With Capital Crime". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 6 April 2019. Retrieved 21 December 2018.
- The Japan Times (2009). "Vietnam opts for Japanese bullet trains". The Japan Times Online. The Japan Times. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Corapi, Annie (2010). "The 10 healthiest ethnic cuisines". CNN Health. Archived from the original on 1 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Borel, Brooke (2010). "A Ping-Pong-Playing Terminator". Popular Science. Archived from the original on 3 March 2019. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Huong, Minh (2010). "Folk poetry preservation a labour of love". Việt Nam News. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Thanh Niên (2010). "Vietnam's 2010 growth fastest in three years". Thanh Niên. Archived from the original on 5 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- "Tech, science spending too low". Việt Nam News. 2010. Archived from the original on 9 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Nguyen, Andrea (2011). "Heaven in a Bowl: The Original *Pho*". Saveur. Archived from the original on 3 March 2019. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Gillet, Kit (2011). "Riding Vietnam's Ho Chi Minh trail". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 12 April 2016. Retrieved 18 December 2016.
- Kinver, Mark (2011). "Javan rhino 'now extinct in Vietnam'". BBC News. Archived from the original on 13 March 2024. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Nhân Dân (2011). "Pink lotus leads vote for Vietnam's national flower". Nhân Dân. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Ha, K. Oanh; Giang, Nguyen Kieu; Denslow, Neil (2012). "Vietnam Air Aims to Win Southeast Asia's No. 2 Title by 2020". Bloomberg L.P. Archived from the original on 29 October 2013.
- MacLeod, Calum (2012). "Fifty years later, U.S., Vietnam deal with Agent Orange". USA Today. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Pham, Hiep (2012). "Government's student loan scheme inadequate to ensure access". University World News. Archived from the original on 18 October 2018. Retrieved 18 October 2018.
- Phuong, Le (2012). "Vietnam's cultural integration seen by researchers". Voice of Vietnam. Archived from the original on 3 March 2019. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- The Telegraph (2012). "Vietnam begins naval exercises with the US". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Cham, Tran (2012). "China continues its plot in the East Sea". Vietnam Net. VNE. Archived from the original on 17 October 2018. Retrieved 17 October 2018.
- Tuổi Trẻ News (2012). "Vietnam to be listed top economies by 2050: HSBC". Tuổi Trẻ. Archived from the original on 16 January 2012.
- Việt Nam News (2012). "Top three telecoms control 95 per cent of market share". Việt Nam News. Archived from the original on 25 February 2019. Retrieved 25 February 2019.
- UPI.com (2013). "Oil production starts offshore Vietnam". United Press International. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Summers, Chris (2014). "How Vietnam became a coffee giant". BBC News. Archived from the original on 19 March 2018. Retrieved 20 June 2018.
- Haberman, Clyde (12 May 2014). "Agent Orange's Long Legacy, for Vietnam and Veterans". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 24 July 2017. Retrieved 19 July 2018.
- "The constitution of the socialist republic of Viet Nam". Việt Nam News. 2014. Archived from the original on 1 May 2019. Retrieved 17 October 2018.
- Batruny, Joe (2014). "20 Vietnamese dishes and drinks you need to try". Matador Network. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Le, Pha (2014). "Marble Mounts – The 'rockery' masterpiece in the heart of Da Nang". Vietnam Net. Archived from the original on 30 November 2018. Retrieved 30 November 2018.
- Yan News (2014). "Nhóm nhạc Hàn Quốc tiết lộ lý do hợp tác cùng Thanh Bùi" [Korean music group revealed the reason for co-operation with Thanh Bùi]. Yan.vn (in Vietnamese). Archived from the original on 8 January 2019. Retrieved 8 January 2019.
- Norton, Barley (2015). "Ca Trù Singing in Vietnam". Smithsonian Folkways. Archived from the original on 19 November 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Minh Do, Anh (2015). "Vietnam's chat app Zalo challenges Facebook with 30 million registered users". Tech in Asia. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Thanh Niên (2015). "Horrific photos recall Vietnamese Famine of 1945". Thanh Niên. Archived from the original on 31 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- The Japan Times (2015). "Japan defense vessel to stop at Vietnam naval base in South China Sea". The Japan Times. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- "Rare photos of Vietnam's famine in 1945". Vietnam Net. 2015. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Agence France-Presse (2016). "The US is helping to clean up Agent Orange residue, 50 years since the Vietnam War". Agence France-Presse. TheJournal.ie. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Sims, Alexandra (2016). "Rio 2016: Vietnam wins first ever Olympic gold medal". The Independent. Archived from the original on 28 August 2017. Retrieved 17 September 2017.
- Duy, Dinh (2016). "The Revival of Boléro in Vietnam". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on 15 October 2018.
- McNeil, Donald G. Jr. (2016). "Vietnam's Battle With Tuberculosis". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Lyimo, Henry (2016). "Africa: Lessons From Vietnam's March to Progress". AllAfrica.com. Archived from the original on 8 March 2016. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Hirano, Ko (2016). "Japanese language studies taking root in Vietnam elementary schools". The Japan Times Online. The Japan Times. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Anh, Lan (2016a). "Ba Be, the biggest mountain lake in Vietnam". Voice of Vietnam. Archived from the original on 15 January 2019. Retrieved 15 January 2019.
- Anh, Lan (2016b). "Vietnamese family reunion during Tet". Voice of Vietnam. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Nguyen, Mai; Binh Minh, Ho; Pham, My; Burmistrova, Svetlana; et al. (2016). "Vietnam abandons plan for first nuclear power plants". Reuters. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Cerre, Mike (2016). "Agent Orange's legacy continues to haunt Vietnam and Veterans". KABC-TV. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Le, Pha (2016). "Top national parks in Vietnam". Vietnam Net. Archived from the original on 28 November 2018. Retrieved 28 November 2018.
- Tiezzi, Shannon (2016). "It's Official: Formosa Subsidiary Caused Mass Fish Deaths in Vietnam". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on 8 January 2019.
- Yan, Sophia (2016). "Vietnam's defense spending is $5 billion and rising fast". CNNMoney. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- "Tourism contributes significantly to Vietnam's economy". Vietnam Net. Vietnam News Agency. 2016a. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- "Decree on university autonomy in final stages". Vietnam Net. VN Economic Times. 2016b. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Van Thanh, Vo (2016). "Vietnam draws up danger-zone map of unexploded bombs". VnExpress. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Việt Nam News (2016). "Seismologists predict potential earthquakes". Việt Nam News. Archived from the original on 10 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Voice of Vietnam (2016). "Vietnam joins int'l naval exercise in Brunei and Singapore". Voice of Vietnam. Archived from the original on 3 March 2019. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Buleen, Chad (2017). "Average Temperature in Vietnam". USA Today. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- FourFourTwo (2017). "The time has come for Vietnam to turn beautiful football into real success". FourFourTwo. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Clark, Helen; Miller, Karryn (2017). "Vietnamese food: 40 delicious dishes you'll love". CNN Travel. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Raslan, Karim (2017). "How Vietnam's answer to Whatsapp, Zalo, began with a hack". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Chi, Kim (2017). "Vietnam builds north-south highway, but not a railway". Vietnam Net. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Tatarski, Michael (2017). "Vietnam's tale of two metros, one built by the Japanese and the other by the Chinese". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Dall, Nick (2017). "How Vietnam learned to stop poaching and love its beasts". Ozy. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Nghia, Son; Luan, Nguyen (2017). "Unique Fighting-Cock Martial Arts". Báo Ảnh Việt Nam. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Mai, Thanh (2017). "Vietnam remains world's No 1 exporter of cashews". Vietnam Net. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Giap, Trong (2017). "Vietnam signs global treaty to ban nuclear weapons". VnExpress. Archived from the original on 13 August 2019. Retrieved 13 August 2019.
- Williams, Vicki (2017). "Why a Vietnamese food journey is sure to tantalise diners from north to south". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- "Top 15 tourist attractions in Vietnam". Vietnam Net. Zing/Voice of Vietnam. 2017a. Archived from the original on 30 November 2018. Retrieved 30 November 2018.
- "Bird watching in Thung Nham bird sanctuary". Vietnam Net. Hanoi Tour/VNN. 2017b. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Tao, Zhang (2017). "Deadly relics: "Mine village" on China-Vietnam border". China Military Online. Archived from the original on 19 November 2018. Retrieved 20 October 2018.
- Rick, August (2018). "How Vietnamese Soccer Upset The Odds That China Is Banking On". Forbes. Archived from the original on 3 September 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- BBC News (2018). "Vietnamese capital Hanoi asks people not to eat dog meat". BBC News. Archived from the original on 12 September 2018. Retrieved 12 September 2018.
- Loan, Doan (2018). "Vietnam's 2019 holiday plan includes 9-day Tet break". VnExpress. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Quốc Hoàng, Giang (2018). "Ji Yeon và Soobin lần đầu song ca trong đêm nhạc Việt – Hàn tại TP.HCM" [Ji Yeon and Soobin first duet in the night of Vietnamese-Korean music in Ho Chi Minh City] (in Vietnamese). Zing.vn. Archived from the original on 8 January 2019. Retrieved 7 January 2019.
- Dam-young, Hong (2018). "S.M. Entertainment to hold K-pop auditions in 10 countries". The Korea Herald/Asia News Network. The Jakarta Post. Archived from the original on 8 January 2019.
- Phương, Lan (2018). "Jiyeon (T-ara) chủ động diễn cảnh tình cảm với Soobin Hoàng Sơn" [Jiyeon (T-ara) took the initiative to act out a love scene with Soobin Hoàng Sơn] (in Vietnamese). Zing.vn. Archived from the original on 9 January 2019. Retrieved 8 January 2019.
- Pike, Matthew (2018). "11 Traditional Vietnamese Tết Dishes". Culture Trip. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Quy, Nguyen (2018). "Three Vietnam hotspots among 100 most visited cities". VnExpress.
- NHK World-Japan (2018). "Japan, Vietnam to launch dioxin cleanup project". NHK World-Japan. Archived from the original on 3 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Nikkei Asian Review (2018). "Vietnam's Agent Orange cleanup enlists Japanese tech". Nikkei Asian Review. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Terzian, Peter (2018). "The World's Top 15 Cities". Travel + Leisure. Archived from the original on 19 December 2018. Retrieved 19 December 2018.
- Chin, Stephen (2018). "Vietnam plays catch up with high speed rail". The ASEAN Post. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Stewart, Phil (2018). "U.S. prepares for biggest-ever Agent Orange cleanup in Vietnam". Reuters. Archived from the original on 20 October 2018. Retrieved 20 October 2018.
- The Economic Times (2018). "Indian, Vietnamese armies hold first military exercise". The Economic Times. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- "Major Vietnam high speed railway to be elevated, tunnelled: draft report". The New York Times. 2018. Archived from the original on 1 July 2017. Retrieved 20 February 2017.
- The Saigon Times Daily (2018). "Wild celebrations in Hanoi as Vietnam win regional title". The Saigon Times Daily. Archived from the original on 7 January 2019. Retrieved 7 January 2019.
- Brown, Vanessa (2018). "Dark side of Vietnam reveals cost of war". news.com.au. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- "Monsanto court ruling bolsters the hope for millions of Vietnamese Agent Orange victims". Việt Nam News. 2018a. Archived from the original on 5 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- "US continues to be key export market for Việt Nam". Việt Nam News. 2018b. Archived from the original on 5 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- "Water industry needs smart tech". Việt Nam News. 2018c. Archived from the original on 16 January 2019. Retrieved 16 January 2019.
- "Water quality inspections to be held nationwide". Việt Nam News. 2018d. Archived from the original on 16 January 2019. Retrieved 16 January 2019.
- "Northern mountain frozen as temperatures drop". Vietnam Net. Dân Trí News. 2018a. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- "$58b for North-South high speed train: consultants". Vietnam Net. VNS. 2018b. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Voice of Vietnam (2018a). "Vietnam celebrates International Women's Day". Voice of Vietnam. Archived from the original on 3 March 2019. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Voice of Vietnam (2018b). "Chief of General Staff of Lao People's Army visits Vietnam". Voice of Vietnam. Archived from the original on 3 March 2019. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Voice of Vietnam (2018c). "Vietnam's pepper industry about to burst". Voice of Vietnam. Archived from the original on 5 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Voice of Vietnam (2018d). "Vietnam's folk music treasure promoted". Voice of Vietnam. Archived from the original on 9 January 2019. Retrieved 9 January 2019.
- Yan; Jun, Tao; Long, Bui (2018). "Feature: Football mania spreads after Vietnam makes history at Asiad". Xinhua News Agency. Archived from the original on 30 August 2018.
- Gomes, Alaric (2019). "Asian Cup: Vietnam continue to chase their dream with quarters berth". Gulf News. Archived from the original on 6 February 2019. Retrieved 6 February 2019.
- Nikkei Asian Review. "Petrovietnam Gas JSC". Nikkei Asian Review. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- The Telegraph. "In pictures: Inside Hang Son Doong, the world's largest caves in Vietnam". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 15 January 2019. Retrieved 15 January 2019.
- Le Dinh Tinh; Hoang Long (31 August 2019). "Middle Powers, Joining Together: The Case of Vietnam and Australia". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on 30 May 2020. Retrieved 27 March 2021.
- Hutt, David (13 July 2020). "US, Vietnam ties have never been better". Asia Times. Archived from the original on 18 April 2021. Retrieved 24 March 2021.
- Corr, Anders (7 November 2019). "Can Vietnam Be America's New Ally Against China?". The National Interest. Archived from the original on 12 March 2021. Retrieved 24 March 2021.
- Tran, Bich T. (15 July 2020). "Will We See a US-Vietnam Strategic Partnership?". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on 18 April 2021. Retrieved 24 March 2021.
Websites
- Tran, Anh Q. (2018). "The Historiography of the Jesuits in Vietnam: 1615–1773 and 1957–2007". Brill. Archived from the original on 31 December 2019. Retrieved 18 May 2024.
- Sagan, Ginetta; Denny, Stephen (1982). "Re-education in unliberated Vietnam: Loneliness, Suffering and Death". The Indochina Newsletter. University of California, Berkeley. Archived from the original on 28 April 2019. Retrieved 5 September 2016.
- Nam Dang, Vu Hoai; Nielsen, Martin (2019). "We asked people in Vietnam why they use rhino horn. Here's what they said". Public Radio International. Archived from the original on 27 May 2019. Retrieved 26 September 2019.
- UNESCO World Heritage Convention (1994). "Ha Long Bay". World Heritage Convention. UNESCO. Archived from the original on 28 November 2018.
- LM Report (2000). "Denmark Mine Removal Action Funding [Table 1. Governmental donations to mine action in calendar year 1999]". International Campaign to Ban Landmines. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- World Bank (2002). "Issues and Dynamics: Urban Systems in Developing East Asia" (PDF). Urbanization Dynamics and Policy Frameworks in Developing East Asia, East Asia Infrastructure Department. World Bank. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 January 2019.
- UNESCO World Heritage Convention (2003). "Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Park". World Heritage Convention. UNESCO. Archived from the original on 28 November 2018.
- Communist Party of Vietnam (2004). "Dân tộc Kinh" (in Vietnamese). Communist Party of Vietnam. Archived from the original on 5 January 2016.
- Vietnam Women's Union (2005). "Vietnam set priorities for HIV/AIDS prevention in 2006". Vietnam Women's Union. Archived from the original on 9 October 2018.
- Berkman Klein Center (2006). "OpenNet Initiative Vietnam Report: University Research Team Finds an Increase in Internet Censorship in Vietnam". Berkman Klein Center for Internet & Society. Archived from the original on 19 November 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Bich Loan, Hoang Thi (2007). "Consistently pursuing the socialist orientation in developing the market economy in Vietnam". Ministry of Culture and Information (Vietnam). Communist Review. Archived from the original on 10 May 2011.
- Vu, Tuong (2007). "Newly released documents on the land reform". Naval Postgraduate School. University of Washington Libraries. Archived from the original on 20 April 2011.
- PWC (2008). "Vietnam may be fastest growing emerging economy". PricewaterhouseCoopers. Archived from the original on 11 January 2012. Retrieved 20 October 2011.
- Le, Thomas D. (2008). "Vietnamese Poetry". Le World. Archived from the original on 15 September 2009.
- McKinney, Brennan (2009). "The Human Migration: Homo Erectus and the Ice Age". Yahoo! Voices. Archived from the original on 12 November 2012. Retrieved 22 January 2013.
- South East Asia Iron and Steel Institute (2009). "Japan-Vietnam alliance to advise high-speed railway project". Thanh Niên. South East Asia Iron and Steel Institute. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- CITEREFUnited_Nations_Population_Fund2009 (2009). "Migration and Urbanization in Vietnam: Patterns, Trends and Differentials" (PDF). United Nations Population Fund Vietnam. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 January 2019.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - CNRS (2010). "2010 Fields Medal awarded to mathematician Ngô Bao Châu". Centre national de la recherche scientifique. Archived from the original on 9 October 2018.
- Intellasia (2010). "Huge hydro plant starts operation in Vietnam, says official". Intellasia. Archived from the original on 23 July 2011.
- Vandemoortele, Milo; Bird, Kate (2010). "Viet Nam's Progress on Economic Growth and Poverty Reduction: Impressive improvements". Development Progress Stories. Archived from the original on 14 May 2011 – via Overseas Development Institute.
- Vandemoortele, Milo (2010). "The MDG fundamentals: improving equity for development". ODI Briefing Papers. Archived from the original on 15 May 2010 – via Overseas Development Institute.
- Karmel, Roberta S. (2010). "The Vietnamese Stock Market" (PDF). Financial Women's Association. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 October 2018. Retrieved 7 May 2010.
- Koppes, Steve (2010). "Ngô Bao Châu receives Fields Medal, highest honor in mathematics". University of Chicago. Archived from the original on 9 October 2018.
- OpenNet Initiative (2012). "Country Profiles [Vietnam]". OpenNet Initiative. Archived from the original on 26 September 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage (2012). "Worship of Hùng kings in Phú Thọ". Intangible cultural heritage. UNESCO. Archived from the original on 15 October 2018.
- World Bank (2013). "School enrollment, primary (% net)". World Bank. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Bielefeldt, Heiner (2014). "Press Statement on the visit to the Socialist Republic of Viet Nam by the Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief". United Nations Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Religion or Belief. Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. Archived from the original on 13 October 2018.
- Hoang Vuong, Quan (2014). "Vietnam's Political Economy in Transition (1986–2016)". Stratfor. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Văn Phúc, Vũ (2014). "Reform policy of the Communist Party of Vietnam after nearly 30 years of renewal". Ministry of Culture and Information (Vietnam). Communist Review. Archived from the original on 29 September 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- UNICEF (2015). "Viet Nam [Sanitation]". UNICEF. Archived from the original on 11 January 2019. Retrieved 11 January 2019.
- Waitemata District Health Board (2015). "Vietnamese Culture" (PDF). Waitemata District Health Board, New Zealand. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 January 2019.
- World Bank (2015). "Progression to secondary school (%)". World Bank. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Chonchirdsin, Sud (2016). "Mythical creatures in Vietnamese culture". British Library. Archived from the original on 15 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Hoang, Hai (2016). "[Listing Note] Riding the boom of passenger traffic growth" (PDF). Airports Corporation of Vietnam (ACV). Viet Capital Securities. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 October 2018.
- Index Mundi (2016). "Vietnam – Improved water source (% of population with access)". Index Mundi. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- UNESCO Media Services (2016). "ASEAN Economic Community likely to spur scientific co-operation, says report". UNESCO. Archived from the original on 8 October 2018.
- Vietnam National Space Centre (2016). "History of Establishment and Development [The period of 2016–2020]". Vietnam National Space Center. Archived from the original on 8 October 2018.
- World Bank (2016b). "Life expectancy at birth, male (years)". World Bank. Archived from the original on 26 August 2018. Retrieved 25 August 2018.
- World Bank (2016c). "Life expectancy at birth, female (years)". World Bank. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Gallop, Annabel (2017). "Vietnam and Dragons". British Library. Archived from the original on 15 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Electricity of Vietnam (2017). "Vietnam Electricity [Annual Report]" (PDF). Electricity of Vietnam. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 October 2018.
- "Operators in Vietnam bolster infrastructure and introduce new products and services in telecoms sector". Oxford Business Group. 2017. Archived from the original on 25 February 2019.
- "Vietnam Water Sector Briefing" (PDF). British Business Group Vietnam. 2017. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 January 2019.
- Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology (2017). "Recent development and implementation plan 2017–2022 of Vietnam Space Center Project". Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology. Archived from the original on 8 October 2018.
- World Bank (2017). "Mortality rate, infant (per 1,000 live births)". World Bank. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Datta, Ajoy; Mendizabal, Enrique (2018). "Political and economic transition in Vietnam and its impact on think tank traditions". Medium. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Communist Party of Vietnam Online Newspaper (2018). "Vietnamese women in Romania mark International Women's Day". Communist Party of Vietnam Online Newspaper. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Formula One (2018). "Vietnam to host Formula 1 Grand Prix from 2020". Formula One. Archived from the original on 7 November 2018. Retrieved 7 November 2018.
- History (2018). "U.S. withdraws from Vietnam [1973]". History. Archived from the original on 19 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Human Development Report (2018). "Human Development Indices and Indicators" (PDF). Human Development Report. United Nations Development Programme. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 October 2018.
- Index Mundi (2018). "Waterways [km]". Index Mundi. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Dallek, Matthew (2018). "How the Tet Offensive Shocked Americans into Questioning if the Vietnam War Could be Won". History. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- SM Entertainment Group (2018). "SM Entertainment Signs MOU for Strategic Alliance and Collaboration with IPP Group, Vietnam's Largest Retail & Lifestyle Company". SM Entertainment Group. Archived from the original on 8 January 2019.
- United Nations Development Programme (2018). "Viet Nam: Mine Action Project launched with support from Korea". United Nations Development Programme. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- University of Technology Sydney (2018). "Hundreds of Vietnamese children access safe water". University of Technology Sydney. Archived from the original on 11 January 2019.
- Vietnam News Agency (2018). "China tops Vietnam's list of importers". VEN.vn. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- World Bank (2018a). "Prevalence of HIV, total (% of population ages 15–49)". World Bank. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- World Bank (2018b). "Urban population (% of total)". World Bank. Archived from the original on 17 December 2018. Retrieved 17 December 2018.
- World Bank (2018c). "GINI index (World Bank estimate)". World Bank. Archived from the original on 27 September 2022. Retrieved 17 October 2018.
- Agent Orange Record. "Dealing With the Damage". Agent Orange Record. Archived from the original on 11 October 2018.
- Cultural Orientation Resource Centre. "The Montagnards – Culture Profile [Language and Literacy]" (PDF). Cultural Orientation Resource Center. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 October 2018.
- Embassy of Vietnam in USA. "Government Structure". Embassy of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam in the United States of America. Archived from the original on 8 April 2018. Retrieved 8 April 2018.
- International Monetary Fund. "World Economic Outlook Database, April 2023". International Monetary Fund. Archived from the original on 13 April 2023. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
- International Olympic Committee (2018). "Vietnam". International Olympic Committee. Archived from the original on 29 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- Montagnard Human Rights Organisation. "Under South Vietnam Rule (1955–1975)". Montagnard Human Rights Organization. Archived from the original on 6 October 2012.
- Reporters Without Borders. "Internet Enemies [Vietnam]". Reporters Without Borders. Archived from the original on 17 March 2011.
- Thi Anh, Do. "Flood in Vietnam". Asian Disaster Preparedness Center. Archived from the original on 10 October 2018.
- UNESCO Publishing. "UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030" (PDF). UNESCO. Archived (PDF) from the original on 30 June 2017. Retrieved 1 September 2017.
- UNICEF. "At a glance: Viet Nam [Statistics]". UNICEF. Archived from the original on 11 January 2008.
- United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. "Data Query". United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Archived from the original on 15 June 2020. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- United Nations Treaty Collection. "Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons [Vietnam]". United Nations Treaty Collection. Archived from the original on 6 August 2019. Retrieved 13 August 2019.
- Vietnamese-American Association. "Lạc Long Quân & Âu Cơ" (PDF). Vietnamese-American Association of Raleigh, North Carolina. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 October 2018.
- Vietnamese Waters Zone. "Catches by Taxon in the waters of Viet Nam". Sea Around Us. Archived from the original on 23 February 2016. Retrieved 15 August 2019.
- Lowy Institute (2020). "Asia Power Index 2020 Edition | Vietnam". Lowy Institute. Archived from the original on 18 April 2021. Retrieved 27 March 2021.
Free content
This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA IGO 3.0. Text taken from UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030, 713–714, UNESCO, UNESCO Publishing.
This article incorporates public domain material from "(U.S. Relations With Vietnam)". U.S. Bilateral Relations Fact Sheets. United States Department of State.
External links
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Resources from Wikiversity
Travel information from Wikivoyage
- Vietnam profile from BBC News
- Vietnam. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. (CIA)
- Vietnam from UCB Libraries GovPubs (archived 3 October 2012)
- Vietnam at Curlie
- Vietnam at Encyclopædia Britannica
Wikimedia Atlas of Vietnam- Key Development Forecasts for Vietnam from International Futures
Government
- Portal of the Government of Vietnam Archived 20 May 2020 at the Wayback Machine
- Communist Party of Vietnam – official website (in Vietnamese)
- National Assembly – the Vietnamese legislative body
- General Statistics Office
- Ministry of Foreign Affairs
- Chief of State and Cabinet Members (archived 5 October 2013)
Media and censorship
- Robert N. Wilkey. "Vietnam's Antitrust Legislation and Subscription to E-ASEAN: An End to the Bamboo Firewall Over Internet Regulation?" The John Marshall Journal of Computer and Information Law. Vol. XX, No. 4. Summer 2002. Retrieved 16 February 2013.
Tourism
| ||||||||||||||||||||||
.svg/100px-Asia_(orthographic_projection).svg.png)
.svg){kind=small}
| International | |
|---|---|
| National | |
| Geographic | |
| People | |
| Other | |
